The Rabbinic period, or the Talmudic period, [1] denotes a transformative era in Jewish history, spanning from the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE to the Muslim conquest in 638 CE.
After the failure of the Great Jewish Revolt of 66–73 CE, Roman measures such as the Fiscus Judaicus tax and land confiscation severely impacted the Jewish population of Judaea. The destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple required Jewish culture to adapt in order to survive. Judaism endured through the establishment of new centers of scholarship and leadership, initially at Yavne under Yohanan ben Zakkai, who promoted a focus on Torah study and synagogue worship. [2] [3] The next decades also saw the Jewish response to several catastrophic events, including the failed Diaspora uprisings of 115–117 CE and the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135 CE, a failed bid for the reestablishment of an independent Jewish state in Judaea. [3] [4] The suppression of these revolts by the Romans led to the devastation of Judea proper as well as diaspora communities, the death and enslavement of many Jews, further displacement, and economic hardship. [3] Despite these challenges, Jewish communal life continued to thrive, particularly in the Galilee, which became a major center of Jewish life and scholarship. [5] The authority of the Patriarchs was instrumental in maintaining Jewish continuity during this transformative period. [5]
During the later Rabbinic period, the Jewish population in the Land of Israel continued to decline under Christianized Roman rule. Jews started facing discriminatory laws and religious persecution, [6] and many emigrated to flourishing Diaspora communities. [7] From the 3rd century onward, the Jewish community in Babylonia became a central hub of Jewish life, benefiting from a relatively tolerant environment under the Sasanian Empire. [4] This period of economic prosperity and political freedom allowed the Babylonian Jewish community, led by the Exilarch, to thrive and foster significant theological and literary developments. [4] During the Rabbinic period, Jewish communities were also present in various regions of the Mediterranean, including Egypt, [8] North Africa, [8] Asia Minor, [8] Italy, [9] and Spain. [9]
The rabbinic period was foundational in the ongoing development of Judaism and its traditions. [4] During this time, the Jewish religious practice transitioned from a focus on the Temple and sacrificial practices to a greater emphasis on Halakha (Jewish law) and Aggadah (biblical interpretation). [2] This period saw the creation of major texts of rabbinic literature, such as the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud, and various midrashim (biblical commentaries). [4] Jews maintained their cultural and religious identity by continuing to speak and write in Hebrew and Aramaic, and developed liturgy, including piyyutim (liturgical poetry). They set up synagogues and yeshivas, engaged in mysticism, and hoped for the Messiah to bring their exile to an end. [4]
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The First Jewish–Roman War took a heavy toll on the Jewish people in the Land of Israel. Approximately one quarter of the Jewish population in Judaea was killed in the fighting and its aftermath and about one tenth was taken into captivity. The Temple, as a national and administrative center of Jewish life and worship was demolished, Jerusalem was destroyed, and the autonomous positions of the Sanhedrin and the High-priesthood were rendered null and void. [10] The social structure prior to the destruction collapsed and the factions of the Sadducees and the Essenes disappeared. On the other hand, the status of the Jews as a people recognized as a nation in the Roman Empire remained, as did their freedom to follow their faith and religious law. [10] Vespasian placed an additional tax of two Dinar for each Jew, the Fiscus Judaicus, creating a financial burden on Jews and meant to humiliate Jews. [3] [11] The Romans also confiscated land from Jews. [3]
Around the period of the destruction of the Temple, Yohanan ben Zakkai moved from Jerusalem to Yavneh, a small town on the coast, where he established a new center of leadership. [2] The Rabbinic movement adopted and further developed the Pharisee approach to Halakha . [12]
This new movement put an emphasis on Torah study, and prayer and the Synagogue emerged as the center of community life. [2] At this stage, the center of Jewish leadership was still in the Land of Israel, although it would eventually move to Babylonia. [2] Although Yohanan ben Zakkai made certain decrees "to remember the Temple", his general approach was to continue observing Judaism regardless of the Temple or lack thereof. [3] Within the Jewish community, prestige and authority was given to the nasi (patriarch). But this authority was challenged by rabbis several times until Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi consolidated his authority as both the patriarch and religious leader. [11] The Romans also confiscated land from Jews. [3]
Between 132-135 CE, the Jews made their last serious attempt to regain their independence in the form of the Bar Kokhba revolt. [3] The Rabbis made an effort to unify the people under Bar Kokhba. The rabbinic leaders understood that such a revolt had no chance of surviving without unity within the Jewish community, and they put much effort into unifying the people behind Bar Kokhba. [3] The failure of the revolt led to many casualties, as well as an economic downturn that caused many Jews to migrate to the Galilee and outside of Israel. [13] In fact, Jews were prohibited from living in the area surrounding Jerusalem during this period; [11] nevertheless, this prohibition was not always enforced, and there appears to have been a small Jewish community that established itself in Jerusalem around the end of the second century. [14]
The Talmud [15] describes the ten places where the Sanhedrin was exiled, the later places being in the Galilee. These exiles lasted a total of about one hundred years. [5] The population of Judea also migrated to the north during this period, making the Galilee the center of Jewish life during this time. [5] Following the Bar Kokhba revolt around 140 CE, when the Sanhedrin was located in Usha, Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel II took its leadership in the form of the Patriarch, and this title was passed down from father to son from then on. [5] (Although Rabban Gamliel II – his father – is also referred to as the Patriarch, this title may be simply applying the family title retroactively. [5] )
The Patriarchs managed to stabilize the economy; in light of the many fields that were left empty following the revolt, they made decrees allowing the owners to reclaim them. [5] In order to preserve the upper hand of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, the Patriarchate clarified to the Jews of Babylonia that the calendar can only be established in the Land of Israel. [16]
The origins of the Jewish community in Babylonia go back to the First Temple period. [2] Beginning in the 3rd century CE, Babylonia became the center of the Jewish world. [2] Babylon was the only major Jewish community outside of the Roman Empire, which attracted Jews and influenced their spiritual world. [2]
In addition to the synagogue, the study hall (bet medrash) played an essential role in the development of Judaism. The sages composed liturgy (piyyutim), Targum, and most importantly codified the Halacha and Aggadah. [2] Halacha is the corpus of Jewish laws, and every matter is carefully considered. The Talmud contains not just the final ruling which is codified as binding law, but also the discussions that lead to that conclusion. [2] The major Halachic works are Mishnah and Tosefta (1st-2nd centuries), Babylonian Talmud and Jerusalem Talmud (3rd to 6th centuries), as well as Halakhic midrashim. [2] These inspired later discussions and codifications of Jewish law such as Maimonides in his Mishneh Torah and Rabbi Yosef Karo in his Shulchan Aruch. [2] Aggadah contains interpretations of Biblical stories. It is dispersed tangentially throughout the Talmud, and it also appears in Midrashim such as Genesis Rabbah. [2]
Although some Jews lived in towns such as Tiberias, Sepphoris, Caesarea and Lydda, most lived in "villages" with populations of 2,000-5,000. [2] Thus, the economy remained similar to what it had been in the Second Temple period. [2] The archeological discovery of many presses indicates that there were large wine and oil industries, and finish was also common. [2] As Jews moved towards the coast, many began to engage in commerce, primarily with port towns in Lebanon and Syria. [2] Villages were governed by seven archons, who were authorized to buy and sell public property, including the Synagogue. [2] There was a concept of "citizenship", with a distinction between permanent and temporary residents. [17] Taxes were collected to finance the Synagogue building, the Torah Scrolls, maintaining public property, and paying for public officials such as the market inspector, the synagogue officer, city guards, and school teachers. [2] There is evidence for some kind of institutions for elementary religious education. [2]
The Sanhedrin was a legislative and judicial assembly of either 23 or 71 elders, existing at both a local and central level in the ancient Land of Israel.
Jewish history is the history of the Jews, their nation, religion, and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures.
Yavne is a city in the Central District of Israel. In 2022, it had a population of 56,232.
The Jewish diaspora or exile is the dispersion of Israelites or Jews out of their ancient ancestral homeland and their subsequent settlement in other parts of the globe.
Tannaim were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 210 years. It came after the period of the Zugot "Pairs" and was immediately followed by the period of the Amoraim "Interpreters".
The First Jewish–Roman War, sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt, or The Jewish War, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire fought in the province of Judaea, resulting in the destruction of Jewish towns, the displacement of its people and the appropriation of land for Roman military use, as well as the destruction of the Jewish Temple and polity.
Syria Palaestina was a Roman province in the Palestine region between the early 2nd and late 4th centuries AD. The provincial capital was Caesarea Maritima. It forms part of timeline of the period in the region referred to as Roman Palestine.
The Bar Kokhba revolt was a large-scale armed rebellion initiated by the Jews of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire in 132 CE. Lasting until 135 or early 136, it was the third and final escalation of the Jewish–Roman wars. Like the First Jewish–Roman War and the Second Jewish–Roman War, the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in a total Jewish defeat; Bar Kokhba himself was killed by Roman troops at Betar in 135 and the Jewish rebels who remained after his death were all killed or enslaved within the next year.
Rabbinic Judaism, also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Rabbanite Judaism, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian Talmud. Rabbinic Judaism has its roots in the Pharisaic school of Second Temple Judaism, and is based on the belief that Moses at Mount Sinai received both the Written Torah and the Oral Torah from God. The Oral Torah, transmitted orally, explains the Written Torah. At first, it was forbidden to write down the Oral Torah, but after the destruction of the Second Temple, it was decided to write it down in the form of the Talmud and other rabbinic texts for the sake of preservation.
Jewish leadership has evolved over time. Since the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE, there has been no single body that has a leadership position over the entire Jewish diaspora. Various branches of Judaism, as well as Jewish religious or secular communities and political movements around the world elect or appoint their governing bodies, often subdivided by country or region.
The Jewish–Roman wars were a series of large-scale revolts by the Jews of Judaea and the Eastern Mediterranean against the Roman Empire between 66 and 135 CE. The First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt were nationalist rebellions, striving to restore an independent Judean state, while the Kitos War was more of an ethno-religious conflict, mostly fought outside the province of Judaea. As a result, there is variation in the use of the term "Jewish-Roman wars." Some sources exclusively apply it to the First Jewish-Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt, while others include the Kitos War as well.
The Siege of Jerusalem of 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War, in which the Roman army led by future emperor Titus besieged Jerusalem, the center of Jewish rebel resistance in the Roman province of Judaea. Following a five-month siege, the Romans destroyed the city and the Second Jewish Temple.
Jewish identity is the objective or subjective state of perceiving oneself as a Jew and as relating to being Jewish. Under a broader definition, Jewish identity does not depend on whether a person is regarded as a Jew by others, or by an external set of religious, legal, or sociological norms. Jewish identity does not need to imply religious orthodoxy. Accordingly, Jewish identity can be cultural in nature. Jewish identity can involve ties to the Jewish community. Orthodox Judaism bases Jewishness on matrilineal descent. According to Jewish law (halacha), all those born of a Jewish mother are considered Jewish, regardless of personal beliefs or level of observance of Jewish law. Progressive Judaism and Haymanot Judaism in general base Jewishness on having at least one Jewish parent, while Karaite Judaism bases Jewishness only on paternal lineage. These differences between the major Jewish movements are the source of the disagreement and debate about who is a Jew.
Judaea was a Roman province from 6 to 132 AD, which incorporated the Levantine regions of Idumea, Philistia, Judea, Samaria and Galilee, extending over parts of the former regions of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of Judea. The name Judaea was derived from the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah, that was centered predominantly in Judea.
Generically, a Galilean is a term that was used in classical sources to describe the inhabitants of Galilee, an area of northern Israel and southern Lebanon that extends from the northern coastal plain in the west to the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan Rift Valley to the east.
Hellenistic Judaism was a form of Judaism in classical antiquity that combined Jewish religious tradition with elements of Hellenistic culture. Until the early Muslim conquests of the eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism were Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in Turkey, the two main Greek urban settlements of the Middle East and North Africa, both founded in the end of the fourth century BCE in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great. Hellenistic Judaism also existed in Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period, where there was a conflict between Hellenizers and traditionalists.
Bar Kokhba revolt coinage were coins issued by the Judaean rebel state, headed by Simon Bar Kokhba, during the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire of 132–135 CE.
The Second Temple period or post-exilic period in Jewish history denotes the approximately 600 years during which the Second Temple stood in the city of Jerusalem. It began with the return to Zion and subsequent reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, and ended with the First Jewish–Roman War and the Roman siege of Jerusalem.
Judea or Judaea is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the present day; it originates from Yehudah, a Hebrew name. Yehudah was a son of Jacob, who was later given the name "Israel" and whose sons collectively headed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Yehudah's progeny among the Israelites formed the Tribe of Judah, with whom the Kingdom of Judah is associated. Related nomenclature continued to be used under the rule of the Babylonians, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. Under the Hasmoneans, the Herodians, and the Romans, the term was applied to an area larger than Judea of earlier periods. In 132 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was merged with Galilee to form the enlarged province of Syria Palaestina.
The history of the Jews in the Roman Empire traces the interaction of Jews and Romans during the period of the Roman Empire. A Jewish diaspora had migrated to Rome and to the territories of Roman Europe from the land of Israel, Anatolia, Babylon and Alexandria in response to economic hardship and incessant warfare over the land of Israel between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires from the 4th to the 1st centuries BCE. In Rome, Jewish communities thrived economically. Jews became a significant part of the Roman Empire's population in the first century CE, with some estimates as high as 7 million people; however, this estimation has been questioned.
The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq.