History of the Jews under Muslim rule

Various Jewish communities were among the peoples who came under Muslim rule with the spread of Islam, which began in the early 7th century in the time of Muhammad and the early Muslim conquests.

Under Islamic rule, Jews, along with Christians and certain other pre-Islamic monotheistic religious groups, were given the status of dhimmi (Arabic : ذِمّيّ 'of the covenant'). These non-Muslim groups were accorded certain rights and protections as 'People of the Book.' However, the treatment of Jews varied significantly depending on the period and location. For example, during the Almohad period in North Africa and Spain, Jews faced harsh persecution and were forced to convert to Islam, flee, or face severe consequences. ^[1] In contrast, during waves of persecution in Medieval Europe, many Jews found refuge in Muslim lands where conditions were comparatively more tolerant during certain eras. ^[2]

Today, after the spread of Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes, with Iran and Turkey being home to the largest remaining Jewish populations, followed by Morocco, Tunisia, Lebanon, Yemen, Algeria, Syria, Pakistan and Iraq. This was due to Zionist recruitment, religious beliefs, economic reasons, widespread persecution, antisemitism, political instability and curbing of human rights in Muslim-majority countries. In 2018, the Jewish Agency for Israel estimated that around 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries. ^{[3] [4] [5]}

Introduction

Historian Mark R. Cohen proposes a comparative approach to understanding Jewish life under Islamic rule, noting that Jews in Islamic lands often experienced less physical violence than Jews under Western Christendom. ^{[6] : 58} He posits that Muslims considered Jews less theologically threatening than Christians did, suggesting that the Christians wanted to establish a separate religious identity from Judaism, from which their faith split and diverged. ^{[6] : 58} According to him, instances of persecution were occasional, more the exception than the rule, ^{[6] : 59} and claims of systemic persecution at the hands of Muslim rulers are myths created to bolster political propaganda. ^{[6] : 56 [ dubious – discuss ]} The situation where Jews in the Muslim world both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted there at other times, was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms. ^[1]

Recently, historian Mohammed Ibraheem Ahmed has posited a political-contingent view of Muslim-Jewish relations. He extends Cohen's point of there being neither an incessant utopia, nor total conflict between Muslims and Jews. He argues that Muslim-Jewish relations are hooked on the political situation of the time, and that is why it often changes between periods of conflict and coexistence. ^[7]

Spread of Islam

Background

Since classical antiquity, Jewish communities have existed across the East Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean that would later come to be parts of the Muslim world. By the time of the early Muslim conquests in the seventh century, these ancient communities had been ruled by various empires and included the Babylonian, Persian, Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Yemenite Jews.

The Emergence of Islam

Jewish Tribes in Medina

By the time of Muhammad’s birth in 570 CE, the Jewish communities of the Hijaz had become integral to Arabian society, participating as merchants, farmers, poets, artisans, and warriors. At the time of his migration to Yathrib (Medina) in 622 CE, Jewish tribes such as the Banu Qurayza, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qaynuqa coexisted with Arab tribes like the Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj. These groups often lived together based on shared economic, social, and political interests rather than strict tribal divisions. In Medina, the Jewish tribes held significant influence, including control over agriculture and the ability to act as intermediaries in local disputes. ^[8]

The Constitution of Medina

Upon arriving in Medina, Muhammad mediated between the city’s factions and established the Constitution of Medina , which aimed to unify its Jewish and Muslim inhabitants. This agreement declared, “The Jews of the Banu Awf are one community ( umma ) with the believers. The Jews have their laws ( dīn ), and the Muslims have theirs.” ^[9] Other Jewish tribes were also included in the agreement, which emphasized mutual support and protection against external threats. Scholars suggest that the final redaction of this agreement may have been made after conflicts between Muhammad and certain Jewish groups escalated.

Islam’s Connections to Judaism

The Qur’an reflects a cultural and religious heritage influenced by Judaism. Many Qur’anic stories about figures such as Moses, Joseph, and David align with Jewish midrashic traditions rather than directly with the Tanakh. Islamic concepts like zakāt (almsgiving), salāt (prayer), and nabī (prophet) have roots in Hebrew and Aramaic, underscoring linguistic and theological connections. “Islam and Judaism shared another fundamental worldview: both religions were from the beginning religions where practice, religious law, and ritual purity are central.” ^[8]

Conflicts and Expulsions

Over time, tensions between Muhammad and certain Jewish tribes grew. The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled after a confrontation, while the Banu Nadir were forced to leave following accusations of conspiring against Muhammad. The Banu Qurayza, accused of allying with Muhammad’s Meccan enemies, faced the harshest fate: the men were executed, and the women and children were enslaved. This period was characterized by “a fateful and sometimes fatal conflict with Islam.” ^[8]

Jewish communities after conflict

Even after the expulsion and subjugation of several Jewish tribes, Jewish communities persisted in other regions of Arabia. In Khaibar, Jews remained under treaty agreements, provided they paid an annual capitulation tax ( Jizya ). Some Jewish groups migrated to the Holy Land, while others maintained connections with Jewish intellectual and religious centers in Babylonia and Palestine. These events illustrate the diverse outcomes of Muhammad’s interactions with Jewish communities, ranging from conflict to coexistence under negotiated terms. ^[10]

Reflections in the Qur’an

The Qur’an provides insight into Muhammad’s encounters with Arabian Jews. It refers to Jewish practices and beliefs while addressing specific disagreements, such as claims about Ezra being regarded as a "son of God" or critiques of mystical practices. Shared ethical values and practices, such as the laws of kashrut, reflect the broader religious context in which Islam emerged. ^[8]

During the Caliphates

A Jew and a Muslim playing chess in 13th century al-Andalus in the Libro de los juegos

During the Middle Ages, Jewish people under Muslim rule experienced tolerance and integration. ^{[6] : 55} Some historians refer to this time period as the "Golden Age" for the Jews, as more opportunities became available to them. ^[6] In the context of day-to-day life, Abdel Fattah Ashour, a professor of medieval history at Cairo University, states that Jewish people found solace under Islamic rule during the Middle Ages. ^{[6] : 56} The Muslim rule at times did not fully enforce the Pact of Umar and the traditional Dhimmi status of Jews; i.e., the Jews sometimes, as in eleventh-century Granada, were not second-class citizens. Author Merlin Swartz referred to this time period as a new era for the Jews, stating that the attitude of tolerance led to Jewish integration into Arab-Islamic society. ^{[6] : 56}

Social integration allowed Jews to make great advances in new fields, including mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, chemistry and philology, ^[11] with some even gaining political power under Islamic rule. ^{[6] : 55} For example, the vizier of Baghdad entrusted his capital to Jewish bankers, Jews were put in charge of certain parts of maritime and slave trade, and Siraf, the principal port of the caliphate in the 10th century, had a Jewish governor. ^[12] Increased commercial freedom increased their integration into the Arab marketplace. ^{[6] : 58} Leon Poliakov writes that in the early ages of Islam, Jews enjoyed great privileges, and their communities prospered. No laws or social barriers restricted their commercial activities, and exclusive trade and craft guilds like those in Europe did not exist. Jews who moved to Muslim lands found themselves free to engage in any profession, resulting in less stigma than in Europe where such restrictions were still in force. ^{[6] : 58} This, coupled with more intense Christian persecution, encouraged many Jews to migrate to areas newly conquered by Muslims and establish communities there.

Although Jewish life improved, Jews still experienced sporadic incidents of persecution. Since the 11th century, there have been instances of pogroms against Jews. Examples include the 1066 Granada massacre, the razing of the entire Jewish quarter in the Andalucian city of Granada. ^[13] The Almohads, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, were far more fundamentalist in outlook than the Almoravides, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Jews and Christians were expelled from Morocco and Islamic Spain. ^[14] Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, some Jews, such as the family of Maimonides, fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. ^[15] In 1465, a mob enraged by stories about the behavior of a Jewish vizier killed many of the Jews and the Sultan himself. ^[16] The community was temporarily converted but soon reverted to Judaism. ^[16]

In the 7th century, the new Muslim rulers institute the kharaj land tax, which led to mass migration of Babylonian Jews from the countryside to cities like Baghdad. This in turn led to greater wealth and international influence, as well as a more cosmopolitan outlook from Jewish thinkers such as Saadiah Gaon, who now deeply engaged with Western philosophy for the first time. When the Abbasid Caliphate and the city of Baghdad declined in the 10th century, many Babylonian Jews migrated to the Mediterranean region, contributing to the spread of Babylonian Jewish customs throughout the Jewish world. ^[17]

Almohad (1121–1269) persecution of Jews in north Africa

The Almohad Caliphate, ruling parts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 12th and 13th centuries, subjected Jewish communities to widespread persecution. Under Almohad rule, synagogues were destroyed, Jewish practices were outlawed, and forced conversions to Islam were imposed. Almohad chronicler ʿAbd al-Wāḥid al-Marrākushī noted that “no church or synagogue is to be found in the entire Maghreb” and described Jews outwardly practicing Islam while secretly maintaining their faith at home. ^[18]

Jewish sources provide a mixed perspective on these events. While some, such as Abraham Ibn Daʾūd, depict the Almohad persecutions as a program of mass forced conversion, ^[19] others, like Maimonides, suggest that these conversions often involved verbal declarations that did not deeply disrupt Jewish life. In his Epistle on Martyrdom, Maimonides described forced conversions as superficial and advised Jews to preserve their faith secretly rather than face martyrdom. ^[20]

The persecutions led to significant theological reflections within the Jewish community. While earlier Islamic regimes were relatively tolerant, the Almohad period marked a profound shift, forcing Jews to reconsider their relationship with Islam and their theological understandings of suffering. Some, like Joseph Ibn ʿAqnīn, regarded the Almohad era as one of the most devastating periods in Jewish history, and he argued for migration to more tolerant lands as a solution. ^[21]

Seljuk Empire (1077-1307) and early Ottoman rule

Main article: History of the Jews in Turkey

Early Modern Period

Ottoman Empire

Photochrom of Jews in Jerusalem, in the 1890s.

Main articles: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire and History of the Jews in Turkey

The Ottoman Empire served as a refuge for Jewish refugees from the Spanish Empire, especially after the fall of Muslim Spain and the imposition of the Edict of Expulsion in 1492. This continued through the Roman Catholic Inquisition, as secret Jews and forced converts continued to flee Spain. The Maghreb from North Africa similarly found refuge among the Ottomans, as large Arabian cities created their own restrictive Jewish quarters ( Mellahs ).

In 1834, in Safed, Ottoman Syria, local Muslim Arabs carried out a massacre of the Jewish population known as the Safed Plunder. ^[22]

In 1840, the Jews of Damascus were falsely accused by Christians of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake Passover bread. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life. After the Damascus affair, the Ottoman Empire banned blood libel accusations. Most of the blood libel assucations were initiated by Greek Christians due to historical animosity between Greeks and Jews. ^[23]

During the final chapter of the Ottoman Empire, increasing nationalism and economic hardship lead to anti-Jewish setiment in the region. ^[23] In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fez in Morocco. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis, and an Arab mob on Jerba Island looted and burned Jewish homes, stores, and synagogues. In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in Demnat, Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight. In 1867, 1870, and 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in Tripolitania. ^[24]

Kurdistan

Main article: Kurdish Jews

Further information: History of the Jews in Iraq and History of the Jews in Syria

Jews lived in Kurdistan for thousands of years, before the final and mass migration in 1951–1952 to Israel. For many years, the Jews lived under the rule of the Ottoman and Persian Empires and following World War I, they mainly lived in Iraq, Iran and Turkey, some Jews lived in Syria. Jews lived in many Kurdish urban centers such as Aqra, Dohuk, Arbil, Zakho, Sulaimaniya, Amadia, in Southern Kurdistan, in Saqiz, Bana and Ushno, in Eastern Kurdistan, in Jezira, Nisebin, Mardin and Diyarbakır in Turkey and Qamishle in North-Western Syria. Jews also lived in hundreds of villages in the rural and tribal area of Kurdistan, usually one or two Jewish families lived in a village, where they worked as weavers of traditional Kurdish clothing or they lived as tenants of the agha, the landlord or the head of the village.

Persia

Main articles: Persian Jews and History of the Jews in Iran

In 1656, all Jews were expelled from Isfahan and forced to convert to Islam because of a common belief that their Jewishness was impure. However, as it became known that the converts continued to practice Judaism in secret and because the treasury suffered from the loss of jizya collected from the Jews, in 1661 they were allowed to revert to Judaism, although they were still required to wear a distinctive patch on their clothing. ^[25]

In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. The Jews themselves were violently forced to convert, narrowly avoiding complete massacre. ^{[26] [27]} There was another massacre in Barfurush in 1867. ^{[28] [29]} In 1839, the Allahdad incident, the Jews of Mashhad, Iran, now known as the Mashhadi Jews, were coerced into converting to Islam. ^[30]

In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote of Persian Jews:

"…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered." ^[31]

Bukhara and the Caucasus

Main article: History of the Jews in Central Asia

A number of groups of Persian Jews have split off since ancient times, to the extent that they are now recognized as separate communities, such as the Bukharan Jews and the Mountain Jews.

Zaydi Yemen

Under Zaydi rule, discriminatory laws which were imposed on the Yemenite Jews became more severe, eventually culminating in their exile, in what later became known as the Exile of Mawza. They were considered impure, and as a result, they were forbidden from touching a Muslim and they were also forebidden from touching a Muslim's food. They were obligated to humble themselves before a Muslim, they were also obligated to walk to the left side, and they were also required to greet him first. They could not build houses higher than a Muslim's house nor could they ride a camel or a horse, and while they were riding on a mule or a donkey, they had to sit sideways. As soon as a Jew entered the Muslim quarter, a Jew had to take off his foot-gear and walk barefoot. If he was attacked with stones or fists by Islamic youth, a Jew was not allowed to defend himself. In such situations, he had the option of fleeing or seeking intervention by a merciful Muslim passerby. ^[32]

Post-colonial era

Arab League

Further information: Jewish exodus from the Muslim world

By the mid-1970s the vast majority of Jews had left, fled or had been expelled from Arab and Muslim-majority countries, moving primarily to Israel, France and the United States. ^[33] The reasons for the exodus are varied and disputed. ^[33] In 1945, there were between 758,000 and 866,000 Jews living in communities throughout the Arab world. Today, there are fewer than 8,000. In some Arab states, such as Libya, which once had a Jewish population of around 3 percent (similar proportion as that of the United States today), the Jewish community no longer exists; in other Arab countries, only a few hundred Jews remain.

The largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500); ^[5] both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been. Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000. ^{[5] [5]} Hundreds of Jews are also found in Lebanon, Yemen, Syria, Algeria and Iraq. ^{[34] [35] [36] [37]}

Imperial Iran and the Islamic Republic

Main articles: History of the Jews in Iran and Persian Jews

Judaism is the second-oldest religion which still exists in Iran after Zoroastrianism. By various estimates, between 8,000 and 10,000 Jews remain in Iran, mostly in Tehran and Hamedan. About one-third of the some 120,000-150,000 Iranian Jews in the mid-20th century fled the country during the 1950s, as a consequence of political instability. Most of the remaining 80,000-100,000 Jews fled during and following the Islamic Revolution of 1979.

Today, the largest groups of Persian Jews are found in Israel (236,000-360,000 in 2014, including second-generation Israelis) and the United States (45,000, especially in the Los Angeles area, home to a large concentration of expatriate Iranians). There are also smaller communities in Western Europe.

Other countries

Today around 200 Jews live in Pakistan.

See also

• Bukharan Jews
• Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
• History of the Jews in Africa
• History of the Jews in the Arabian Peninsula
• Islamic–Jewish relations
• Jewish exodus from the Muslim world
• Maghrebi Jews
• Mizrahi Jews
• Mountain Jews
• Musta'arabi Jews
• Persian Jews
• Sephardic Jews
• Ashkenazi Jews

References

Notes

1. Grunebaum, G. E. von (2023-11-15), "2. Eastern Jewry Under Islam", Volume 2 Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Volume 2 (1971), University of California Press, pp. 365–372, doi:10.1525/9780520313590-019, ISBN   978-0-520-31359-0 , retrieved 2024-10-05
2. Lewis 1984 p. 62
3. Staff, Toi (8 September 2018). "Ahead of Rosh Hashanah, figures show 14.7 million Jews around the globe". Times of Israel.
4. "Global Jewish population reaches 14.7 million". The Jerusalem Post. 9 September 2018.
5. "Jewish Population Rises to 15.2 million Worldwide". Jewish agency. 15 September 2021.
6. Cohen, Mark R. "The Neo-Lachrymose Conception of Jewish-Arab History Archived 2020-04-23 at the Wayback Machine ." Tikkun 6.3 (1991)
7. Ahmed, Mohammed Ibraheem (June 2022). "Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality". Religions. 13 (6): 535. doi: 10.3390/rel13060535 . ISSN   2077-1444.
8. Collective (2013). A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations. Kindle Edition: Princeton University Press. pp. 2–4.
9. Collective (2013). A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations. Kindle Edition: Princeton University Press. pp. 917–965.
10. Newby, G. D. (1988). A History of the Jews of Arabia from Ancient Times to Their Eclipse Under Islam. University of South Carolina Press.
11. Cowling 2005, p. 265.
12. Poliakov 1974, pp. 68–71.
13. Nagdela (Nagrela), Abu Husain Joseph Ibn by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia . 1906 ed.
14. The Forgotten Refugees Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
15. Kraemer, Joel L. (2005). Seeskin, Kenneth (ed.). Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait in The Cambridge companion to Maimonides. Cambridge companions to philosophy. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN   978-0-521-81974-9.
16. Gerber, Jane S. (1980). Jewish Society in Fez 1450-1700: Studies in Communal and Economic Life. BRILL. pp. 20–22. ISBN   978-90-04-05820-0.
17. Rustow, Marina (2010). "Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions". AJS Perspectives.
18. Verskin, Alan. Medieval Jewish Perspectives on Almohad Persecutions. Leiden: Brill, 2020, pp. 155–157.
19. Verskin, pp. 157."His Almohad leader declares, “Come, let us cut them off from being a nation so that the name of Israel may be no more in remembrance.” The leader succeeded in his goal, leaving the Jews “neither name nor remnant in his entire kingdom.” Thus Ibn Da⁠ʾūd leaves us in no doubt that Almohad persecution involved a program of mass forced conversion."
20. Verskin, pp. 158–159.
21. Verskin, pp. 160–161.
22. Louis Finkelstein (1960). The Jews: their history, culture, and religion. Harper. p. 679. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
23. De Felice 1985, p. 19.
24. Bensoussan, Georges (2019-03-04). Jews in Arab Countries: The Great Uprooting. Indiana University Press. p. 100. ISBN   978-0-253-03858-6.;Felice, Renzo De (2014-11-26). Jews in an Arab Land: Libya, 1835–1970. University of Texas Press. ISBN   978-1-4773-0408-2.
25. Littman 1979, p. 3.
26. Lewis, Bernard (2014-09-28). The Jews of Islam: Updated Edition. Princeton University Press. p. 168. ISBN   978-1-4008-5222-2.
27. Gilbert, Martin (2002). Dearest Auntie Fori: The Story of the Jewish People. HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 179–182.
28. Littman 1979, p. 4.
29. Lewis 1984, p. 168.
30. "Mashhadi Jews in New-York". 2003.
31. Lewis 1984, pp. 181–183.
32. Jewish Communities in Exotic Places," by Ken Blady, Jason Aronson Inc., 2000, page 10
33. Yehouda Shenhav The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity
34. "The Jews of Syria's Qamishli: Short History, Lasting Legacy". Middle East Forum. 2024-06-01. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
35. "Judaism in Syria". rpl.hds.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
36. "Abandoned Jewish places across the Arab world | Al Bawaba". www.albawaba.com. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
37. "Iraq's Jewish community". Chaldean News.

Bibliography

• Bensoussan, Georges (2019) [2012]. Juifs en pays arabes, Le grand déracinement 1850–1975[Jews in Arab Countries: The Great Uprooting]. Translated by Halper, Andrew. Indiana University Press. ISBN   9780691151274.
• Meri, Josef, ed. (2016). The Routledge Handbook of Muslim-Jewish Relations. Routledge. ISBN   9780367581596.
• Stora, Benjamin; Meddeb, Abdelwahab, eds. (2016) [2013]. Histoire Des Relations Entre Juifs Et Musulmans Des Origines À Nos Jours[A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations: From the Origins to the Present Day]. Translated by Todd, Jane Marie; Smith, Michael B. Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691151274.
• Gilbert, Martin (2010). In Ishmael's house: a History of Jews in Muslim Lands. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0300167153.
• Zaken, Mordechai (2007). Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan: A Study in Survival. Boston and Leiden: Brill.
• Cowling, Geoffrey (2005). Introduction to World Religions. Singapore: First Fortress Press. ISBN   0-8006-3714-3.
• De Felice, Renzo (1985) [1978]. Ebrei in un paese arabo: Gli ebrei nella Libia contemporanea tra colonialismo, nazionalismo arabo e sionismo (1835-1970)[Jews in an Arab Land: Libya, 1835–1970]. Translated by Roumani, Judith. University of Texas Press. ISBN   9781477304082.
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN   0-691-00807-8.
• Littman, David (1979). "Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia". The Wiener Library Bulletin. XXXII (New series 49/50).
• Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: Vanguard Press.
• Landau, Jacob M. (1969). Jews in Nineteenth-century Egypt. New York: New York University Press.