Jewish military history

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Jewish military history focuses on the military aspect of history of the Jewish people from ancient times until the modern age.

Contents

Ancient Israelites

While complete details in the Biblical account of a system of fighting forms are not extant, the Midrashic, Talmudic, and Rabbinic accounts testify to fighting and combat strategies used by the ancient Israelites as well as legendary depictions of Israelite combatants.

The campaign of Pharaoh Merneptah in Canaan

The early years of Merneptah's reign were marked by various military expeditions, which were documented in the Merneptah Stele. [1] Although the main focus of the Stele is his victory over the invading Lybians and Sea Peoples during the fifth year of his reign (1208 BCE), Merneptah concluded the text with a short poem depicting his victories over various elements in the land of Canaan, namely the cities of Ashkelon, Gezer and Yano'am and the ethnic group Israel: [2]

"Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe: Ashkelon has been overcome; Gezer has been captured; Yano'am was made non-existent. Israel is laid waste (and) his seed is not." [2]

While some scholars have questioned the accurate interpretation of "Israel" and its relationship to biblical Israel, the majority of Egyptologists concur that it should indeed be understood as referring to Israel, and mainstream scholarship acknowledges a connection between the Israel mentioned and biblical Israel. [3] According to Richard Gabriel, Merneptah sent troops to Gezer to prevent the Israelite advance in the region, in order to keep the road over the central mountain range towards the Jordan river in Egyptian hands. There is evidence that suggests that the Merrneptah stele refers to this campaign. [4]

Battle of Qarqar

The Battle of Qarqar took place in 853 BCE, and was fought by Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria, and a coalition of 11 kings including Ahab, king of Israel. In the Kurkh Monoliths, it is mentioned that the Israelite forces constituted 10000 troops and 2000 chariots. [5]

The campaigns of Hazael in the lands of Isreal and Judah

The Tel Dan Stele, discovered in 1993–94 at the archaeological site of Tel Dan, tells of a seesawing military conflict between the kingdom of Dasmascus and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, beginning in the mid 9th century BCE. [6] Correlating with the texts of the monolith of Kurkh, the Baghdad text, the Kurbail statue of Shlmaneser III, the Aramean dedications on horse bliders and forhead ornaments, and the biblical text it was most probably erected there during the mid-ninth century BCE by Hazael of Aram-Damascus, in honor of his successful occupation of the prominent Israelite city of Dan. [7] The stele consists of three fragments constituting part of a triumphal inscription in Aramaic. [7] The beginning of the surviving fragments has the lament of Hazael over the conquering or infiltration of the lands of his father by the king or kings [8] of Israel:

"And the king of I[s-]rael entered previously in my father's land" [9]

In the end of the inscription, the speaker boasts of his victories over the king of Israel and his ally the king of the "House of David", who are mentioned as having commanded vast armies:

"And I killed two power[ful] kin[gs], who harnessed two thou[sand cha-]riots and two thousand horsemen. [I killed Jo]ram son of [Ahab] king of Israel, and I killed [Achaz]yahu son of [Joram king] of the House of David." [8]

It is believed that the stele was shattered by the Israelites after they repossessed the city of Dan, in order to protest the insult of its erection by the Aramean king in their land. [7]

The occupation of Lands by Mesha of Moab

Mesha Stele was discovered in 1868–70 and was created around 840 BCE by King Mesha of Moab. Mesha tells how Kemosh, the God of Moab, had been angry with his people and had allowed them to be subjugated to Israel, but at length Kemosh returned and assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab.

The campaigns of Sennachrib against Israel and Judah

Lachish relief showing the siege of Lachish Lachishsiege1.PNG
Lachish relief showing the siege of Lachish

Sennacherib's campaign in Judah was a military conflict in 701 BCE between Kingdom of Judah and the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the conflict is part of the greater conflict of Sennacherib's campaigns.

Siege of Jerusalem

In 721 BCE, the Assyrian army captured the Israelite capital at Samaria and carried away the citizens of the northern kingdom into captivity. The virtual destruction of Israel left the southern kingdom, Judah, to fend for itself among warring Near Eastern kingdoms. The siege took place in approximately 701 BCE by Sennacherib, king of Assyria. The siege failed and Jerusalem survived until its eventual destruction by the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar.

Siege of Lachish

The siege of Lachish occurred in 701 BCE, by the Neo-Assyrian empire, and ended with the conquest of the town. The towns inhabitants led into captivity and the leaders of Lachish tortured to death. The town was abandoned, but resettled after the return from Babylonia.

Battle of Megiddo

The Battle of Megiddo is recorded as having taken place in 609 BCE with Necho II of Egypt leading his army to Carchemish to fight with his allies the Assyrians against the Babylonians at Carchemish in northern Syria. This required passing through territory controlled by the Kingdom of Judah and Necho requested permission from its king, Josiah. Josiah refused to let the Egyptians pass and a battle took place in which Josiah was killed. The battle is recorded in the Bible, 1 Esdras, and the writings of Josephus.

Jewish–Babylonian war

Zedekiah is chained and brought before Nebuchadnezzar, from Petrus Comestor's "Bible Historiale," 1670 Zedekiah is chained and brought before Nebuchadnezzar.jpg
Zedekiah is chained and brought before Nebuchadnezzar, from Petrus Comestor's "Bible Historiale," 1670

The Jewish–Babylonian war was a military conflict between the Kingdom of Judah and Babylonia that lasted from 601 to 586 BCE. The conflict marked the end of the Kingdom of Judah and Jewish independence until the Hasmonean revolt. After Babylonia invaded Jerusalem it destroyed the First Temple, and started the Babylonian exile.

First siege of Jerusalem

In 605 BCE Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon defeated Pharaoh Neco at the Battle of Carchemish, and subsequently invaded Judah. To avoid the destruction of Jerusalem, King Jehoiakim of Jerusalem, in his third year, changed allegiances from Egypt to Babylon. He paid tribute from the treasury in Jerusalem, some temple artifacts, and some of the royal family and nobility as hostages. [10] In 601 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar failed to invade Egypt, the failure led to rebellions among states in the Levant including Judah. Nebuchadnezzar sieged Jerusalem in 597 BCE, and managed to get in and capture king Jehoiachin, [11] [12] [13] and all of the Aristocracy of Jerusalem. [11] The siege resulted with fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the First Temple. Then Nebuchadnezzar exiled 10000 of the officers, and the craftsmen, and 7000 soldiers. [11]

Second Siege of Jerusalem

In July 587 BCE, Zedekiah rebelled against Babylonia, making an alliance with Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar sieged Jerusalem again, starving the people. The siege resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the fall of the Kingdom of Judah.

Classic era

Maccabees

The Maccabees (Hebrew: מכבים or מקבים, Makabim) were a Jewish warrior community who spearheaded a national liberation movement that fought for and won independence from Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty, who was succeeded by his infant son Antiochus V Eupator. [14] [15] The Maccabees founded the Hasmonean royal dynasty and established Jewish independence in the Land of Israel for about one hundred years, from 164 BCE to 63 BCE.

In service of the Romans

Around 7 BCE, [16] King Herod of Judaea invited Zamaris, a Jew from Babylonia, and his 500 mounted archers to settle in the village of Bathyra in Batanea, in modern Syria, granting them tax exemptions. [17] [16] [18] This settlement was tasked with protecting Batanea from Trachonite brigands and safeguarding Jewish pilgrims traveling to Jerusalem. [16] [19] Additionally, Ein Targhuna, an archaeological site near Massah, Libya, is believed to have been a Jewish military settlement established to defend the area from raids, possibly consisting of troops relocated from Trachonitis by Augustus. [20] [21]

Jewish–Roman wars

The Jewish–Roman wars followed the Roman annexation of Iudaea, taking place from 66 to 135 CE. Those were the First Jewish–Roman War, the Diaspora revolt and finally, the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Between 115 and 117 CE, the Diaspora Revolt saw uprisings by Jewish communities in the Roman provinces of Egypt, Cyrenaica, and Cyprus, occurring while Emperor Trajan was engaged in his Parthian campaign. [22] Likely triggered by the destruction of the Temple, ethnic tensions, the Fiscus Judaicus tax, and messianic expectations, the revolts targeted local populations with violence, including mass killings and the destruction of roads, civic structures, and pagan temples. [22] There were also reports of a Jewish rebellion in Mesopotamia, which appears to have been part of a broader resistance against Roman expansion into the Parthian Empire. [22] To suppress the revolts, Trajan sent two of his top generals: Marcius Turbo, who led military and naval operations to restore order in Egypt and Libya, and Lusius Quietus, who managed the suppression in Mesopotamia and an unrest in Judaea known in rabbinic texts as the Kitos War. By late 117 CE, the revolts had been largely quelled. [22] The revolt resulted in the annihilation and expulsion of Jewish communities from several provinces. A victory festival was still observed in Oxyrhynchus eighty years later. [22]

From 132 to 136 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt took place, representing the last major Jewish effort to reclaim independence in Judaea. [23] Led by Simon Bar Kokhba, who assumed the title of nasi, the Jewish forces briefly established a state in the regions of Judea (excluding Jerusalem) and possibly Perea, even minting their own coins. [24] Ancient sources cite Hadrian's establishment of the pagan city Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem and prohibition of circumcision as key catalysts for the revolt. [24] The discovery of extensive hiding complexes, especially in the Judaean Lowlands, supports reports of large-scale preparations by the Jews. [24] In response, the Romans assembled a massive military force, likely over 50,000 soldiers, to suppress the uprising, while the exact size of Bar Kokhba's forces remains uncertain. [24] The Roman victory led to the near-total destruction and depopulation of central Judea, with every excavated village in the area being razed. [24] [25] [26] The aftermath included mass enslavement of Jewish survivors, [24] [27] and the flight of refugees to caves. [24] [28] The Romans renamed the province from Judaea to Syria Palaestina, a punitive measure designed to erase Jewish identity and underscore the severity of their suppression. [29] The revolt's failure marked a pivotal shift in Jewish history, leading to the decline of Jewish nationalism and the rise of religious leadership over political leadership. [24]

Late antiquity

Himyarite Kingdom

In modern-day Yemen, the Ancient Himyarite Kingdom appears to have abandoned polytheism and converted to Judaism around the year 380. Accompanied with a strong military prowess, they proved to be a matching force to the Christian empires of Byzantium and Axum for 200 years. After having conquered a major part of the Arabic peninsula, the Himyarite Empire has been annexed by the Kingdom of Axum.

Revolt against Gallus

In mid-4th century Jews of Galilee launched the Revolt against Gallus, aiming to defeat Roman troops across Galilee.

Exilarch revolt in Persia

Mar Zutra II, who came into Exilarch office at the age of fifteen, took advantage of the confusion into which Mazdak's communistic attempts had plunged Sasanian Persia, to obtain by force of arms for a short time a sort of political independence for the Jews of Babylon. King Kobad, however, punished him by crucifying him on the bridge of Mahuza c. 502.

Byzantine period

In early 7th century Near Eastern Jews launched Jewish revolt against Heraclius, in hopes of gaining an autonomy in Jerusalem with Persian Sasanian support.

Middle Ages

According to a number of accounts various Middle Eastern and Asian Jewish communities, who were either known for their fighting prowess,

Samuel ibn 'Adiya Arabian warrior poet

Poet and warrior; lived in Arabia in the first half of the 6th century CE. His mother was of the royal tribe of Ghassan, while his father, according to some, was descended from Aaron, or, according to others, from Kahin, son of Harun and progenitor of the Jewish tribes of Kuraitza and Nathir. Samuel owned a castle near Taima (eight hours north of Medina), built by his grandfather 'Adiya and called, from its mixed color, Al-Ablak. It was situated on a high hill and was a halting-place for travelers to and from Syria.

More than for his poetic talents Samuel ibn 'Adiya is famous for his connection with the warrior-poet and prince Amru al-Kais, which won for him the epithet "faithful", and gave rise to the saying, still common among the Arabs, "more faithful than Samuel." Samuel ibn 'Adiya's reputation as a poet rests upon one of the first poems in the collection called the "Hamasa." It is full of warlike vigor and courage, and manifests a high ideal of honor. Another poem attributed to him has been published in Arabic and Hebrew, with an English translation, by H. Hirschfeld ("J. Q. R." xvii. 431–440). [30]

Jews of China

There are many theories surrounding when Jews first settled in China. Despite trading in China since at least the 9th century, [31] many modern scholars "unanimously" believe an actual community was founded in Kaifeng City, Henan province during the early years of the Northern Song dynasty. [32] However, one of the three stelae (stone edicts) left by the community claims "they entered and settled in China during the Han Dynasty", almost 800 years earlier. [33]

The stele dating 1489 states that Song dynasty founder Emperor Taizu (mistakenly referred to as Ming Taizu) went on military campaigns to "pacify the Under Heaven" during the early years of his reign. [34] When the armies successfully gained control of China and solidified the power of the Song dynasty, Emperor Taizu bestowed the "sinicized" Jewish soldiers with land "to settle and enjoy their occupation in the villages". [34] Jewish soldiers continued to serve in the Chinese military through the Southern Song dynasty. The stele dating 1512 states "those who subdued the enemy and resisted aggression and were 'boundlessly loyal to the country'" were successful in their endeavors. [35] The term "boundlessly loyal to the country" refers to the famous tattoo on the back of General Yue Fei, a noted patriot and martyr. [36] So the loyalty of the Jewish soldiers was compared to that of Yue Fei. The same source even claims that "Israelites" served in Yue Fei's armies and helped to combat the Jurchen armies invading China during that time. [37]

Modern scholars that translate the 1489 stele mention how a physician named Ancheng received a sizable amount of money from "Prince Ding of Zhou prefecture" to rebuild the community's destroyed synagogue in 1421. [38] In 1423, Ancheng was given the surname "Chao" by the emperor himself, received the "rank of Military Commissioner in the Embroidered Uniform Guard" and was promoted to "Assistant Military Commissioner of Zhejiang." [39] However, a journal entry from 1965 formally corrected a translation error that proceeding authors still make today. The physician Ancheng was "apparently a romantic fabrication" and the actual person was "a common soldier named An San, who belonged to the Honan Central Bodyguard Division". [40] He had warned the Yongle Emperor of a plot against him by Prince Zhou, An's military commander and benefactor of the Jewish community, and was subsequently promoted (as mentioned above) and given the "properly Chinese name Chao Ch'eng (Chao the Honest), and in due course became a notable leader of the community and ancestor of the principal Jewish clan." [40]

Habbani Jews of Southern Yemen

In 1912 Zionist emissary Shmuel Yavnieli came into contact with Habbani Jews who ransomed him when he was captured and robbed by eight Bedouin in southern Yemen. Yavnieli wrote about the Jews of Habban describing them in the following way.

The Jews in these parts are held in high esteem by everyone in Yemen and Aden. They are said to be courageous, always with their weapons and wild long hair, and the names of their towns are mentioned by the Jews of Yemen with great admiration. [41]

There are a number of legends about the origins of the Jews of Habban. The most prominent is that they descend from Judean soldiers who were stationed in southern Arabia by King Herod of Jerusalem during the Second Temple period. Herod dispatched a unit of Jews in the region to assist the Romans with fighting wars in the area. Unlike the Jews of northern Yemen the Habbani Jews wore: Jambiyya (curved knife), Matznaph (turban) and Avne`t (sash).

Benjamin of Tudela (twelfth century) found an independent Jewish warrior tribe living in the highlands of Khorasan near Nisapur, numbering many thousand families, regarding themselves as descendants of Dan, Zebulun, Asher, and Naphtali, under a Jewish prince of the name of Joseph Amarkala ha-Levi. [42] Another independent Jewish tribe bent upon warlike expeditions is mentioned by Benjamin as living in the district of Tehama in Yemen. [43] ARMY – JewishEncyclopedia.com

Mountain Jews of Daghestan

Armed Mountain Jewish men, c. 1900 (1905-06 Jewish Encyclopedia) Mountain jewish men.jpg
Armed Mountain Jewish men, c. 1900 (1905–06 Jewish Encyclopedia)
And we, the Tats
We, Samson warriors,
Bar Kochba's heirs...
we went into battles
and bitterly, heroically
struggled for our freedom
The Song of the Mountain Jews [44] [45] [46]

The Jews of Daghestan lived isolated and in one of the most remote, impenetrable areas in the world for many centuries. They have been historically known for their fierce and war-like nature. In dress and custom they were hardly distinguishable from other Caucasian fighting people in the region. Though they are considered dhimmi by their surrounding Muslim population, the Mountain Jews owned land and were known to be fierce, not hesitating to defend, by sword or the rifle, their family, religion, or personal dignity.

The Jews of Daghestan greatly resemble the other warlike inhabitants of this mountainous region; and they have acquired the virtues as well as the faults of the latter. There is a tradition among the Jews of Daghestan that they are the descendants of the Lost Ten Tribes; but the history of their wanderings is now forgotten, the written documents which they once possessed having in the course of time been either lost or destroyed. They differ from their Christian and Mohammedan neighbors in speech, using the Tat language, which is a combination of Persian and Hebrew. Their writing is a mixture of square characters and Rashi. They wear the Circassian dress, and always go heavily armed, even sleeping without having removed their weapons. [47]

It is possible that the Mountain Jews are descendants of Persian-Jewish soldiers who were stationed in the Caucasus by the Sasanian kings in the fifth or sixth century to protect the area from the onslaughts of the Huns and other nomadic invaders from the east. Under the impact of the invading Turkish hordes, later generations of Jewish inhabitants of the Caucasian lowlands were forced to migrate even further north to Daghestan. [48]

Jews of Tirdirma, Mali

According to a West African Arabic record called the Tarikh al-fattash , in 1402 in Tiridirma near the Niger river lived a community of Jews known as the Bani Israeel who were said to have seven rulers, 333 wells, and a well trained army. The record suggests that their presence in the area preceded the rise of Islam. [49]

Jewish soldiers of Islamic Spain

Jewish soldiers assisted Childeric in his war against Wamba. The Moors are said to have entrusted to Jews the guardianship of the conquered cities of Spain. Under Alfonso VI of Castile, in 1086, 40000 Jews fought against Yusuf ibn Teshufin in the battle of Zalaka, with such heroism that the battle-field was covered with their bodies. [50] Under Alfonso VIII of Castile. (1166–1214) there were many warriors among the wealthy and cultured Jews of Toledo that fought bravely against the Moors. [51] Alfonso X., called "the Wise", while infante, had many Jews in his army; and in the capture of Seville (1298) the Jewish warriors distinguished themselves so highly that, in compensation for their services, Alfonso allotted to them certain lands for the formation of a Jewish village. He also transferred to them three mosques which they turned into synagogues. The cruel fanaticism of the Moors had alienated the Jews, who were now won over to the Christians by the tolerant rule of the latter. [52] Jews fought bravely at the side of Pedro the Cruel in defense of the cities of Toledo, Briviesca, and Burgos, against Henry de Trastamara, his brother, and had to pay for their loyalty to their king either with their lives and the lives of their undefended wives and children, or, as the Jews of Burgos had to do, with a heavy ransom to the relentless victor. [53]

Jewish defenders during the First Crusade

Jews fought side-by-side with Egyptian Fatimid soldiers to defend Jerusalem against the Crusaders during the First Crusade. [54] Saint Louis University Professor Thomas Madden, author of A Concise History of the Crusades, claims the "Jewish Defenders" of the city knew the rules of warfare and retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death" since the Crusaders had breached the outer walls. [55] However, another source states the joint Jewish-Egyptian forces retreated from the walls and made their last stand against the crusaders by the Temple Mount, only then going to their respective houses of worship once they were overpowered. [56] According to the Muslim chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi, "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads." [57]

Piracy against Spanish vessels

In response to the Spanish Inquisition, a number of Spanish Jews who had left turned to piracy against Spanish ships. [58]

Modern times

The Beardlings

In 1794 Colonel Berek Joselewicz raised a cavalry regiment of 500 Jewish volunteers which fought against the Russian Army in the Kościuszko Uprising in Poland.

Nili

Nili (Hebrew language: ניל"י, an acronym of a phrase נצח ישראל לא ישקר (I Samuel 15:29; transliteration: Netzakh Yisrael Lo Yishaker; literal translation: "The Eternity of Israel does not lie") was a Jewish espionage-network which assisted the United Kingdom during World War I (1914–1918) in its fight against the Ottoman Empire, which occupied Palestine from 1516 to 1918.

Jews in the Imperial German Army

During the First World War, 100000 Jews served in the German forces. 12000 were killed in action. Thirty thousand were decorated for valor in battle. Among them was the fighter pilot Wilhelm Frankl (who converted to Catholicism in 1917), and the future mayor of Hamburg, Herbert Weichmann.[ citation needed ]

Jewish Legion (British)

The Jewish Legion was the name for five battalions of Jewish volunteers established as the British Army's 38th through 42nd (Service) Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers. The initial unit, known as the Zion Mule Corps, was formed in 1914–1915 during World War I, when Britain was at war against the Ottoman Turks, as Zionists around the world saw an opportunity to promote the idea of a Jewish National Homeland.

Jewish regiment (Russian Civil War)

The Jewish regiment was an infantry regiment formed in February 1919 during the Russian Civil War 1917–1922 as a part of the forces of ataman Grigory Semyonov which acted in the Transbaikal region.

In the early 20th century, Russian Jews were active in a variety of political movements. Many joined revolutionary movements such as Esers, Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. Many Jews served in Makhno's "Black" Army. Others turned to counter-revolution.

The regiment was formed by the Chita Jewish community. The staffers and soldiers of the regiment were Jews from various social classes, from craftsmen to traders' sons. Some Jews were reluctant to accept the Soviet regime after being eyewitness to the Red Terror, instability, and upsurge of crime of 1918. Soldiers and staffers celebrated all Jewish holidays and fought on Shabbat. There were 170 soldiers, 7 sergeants, 4 low rank officers, and 2 captains. Most of the soldiers were from Chita and Nerchinsk.

The Jewish regiment took part in many actions against local partisans. The most significant achievement of the regiment was participation in the defeat of the internationalist partisan battalion (150 strong) camped on the northeastern village of Tupik.... The partisans, mostly Hungarians, were former prisoners of war (POW) who were sent to the Transbaikal region during World War I.

World War II

Jewish Military Union (Polish)

the Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ŻZW), Polish for Jewish Military Union was an underground resistance organization operating during World War II in the area of the Warsaw Ghetto and fighting during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. It was formed primarily of former officers of the Polish Army in late 1939, soon after the start of the German occupation of Poland.

Anti-Fascist Military Organisation (Polish)

The Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa Polish for Anti-Fascist Military Organisation was an underground organization formed in 1942 in the Ghetto in Białystok by former officers of the Polish Land Forces. It took part in the Białystok Ghetto Uprising.

Jewish Combat Organization (Polish)

The Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ŻOB), Polish for the Jewish Combat Organization; called in Yiddish יידישע קאמף ארגאניזאציע) – a World War II resistance movement, which was instrumental in engineering the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (although the ŻZW Jewish resistance organization claimed otherwise). The organization also took part in other resistance activities.

Jewish Brigade (British)

The Jewish Infantry Brigade Group was a military formation of the British Army that served in Europe during the Second World War. Although the brigade was formed in 1944, some of its experienced personnel had been employed against the Axis powers in Greece, the Middle East and East Africa. More than 30000 Palestinian Jews volunteered to serve in the British Armed Forces, 734 of whom died during the war.

Special Interrogation Group (British)

The Special Interrogation Group (SIG) (some sources interpret this acronym as Special Identification Group or Special Intelligence Group) was a British Army unit organized from German-speaking Jewish volunteers from the British Mandate of Palestine. The SIG performed commando and sabotage operations against the Nazis behind front lines in the Western Desert Campaign during World War II.

Jews in the USSR

During the Great Patriotic War June 1941 – May 1945 Jews of the USSR Served in the Red Army and the Red Navy. Examples:

Palestine Yishuv

The Jewish Resistance Movement

The Jewish Resistance Movement (Hebrew : תנועת המרי העברי, Tnu'at HaMeri HaIvri, literally Hebrew Rebellion Movement) was an umbrella group for militant Jewish underground movements in the British Mandate of Palestine. The group existed between the years 1945 and 1946, and coordinated armed attacks against the British military. The group was founded after World War II, disappointed in British policies towards the movement.

Haganah

The Haganah (Hebrew: "The Defense", ההגנה) was a Jewish paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine from 1920 to 1948.

The predecessor of Haganah was Ha-Shomer (השומר, The Guild of Watchman) established in 1909 (formed out of Bar-Giora which started two years before). It was a small group of Jewish immigrants who guarded settlements for an annual fee. At no time did the group have more than 100 members.

After the 1920 Arab riots and 1921 Jaffa riots, the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British (whom the League of Nations had given a mandate over Palestine in 1920 for the purpose of establishing a Jewish national home) had no desire to confront local Arab gangs over their attacks on Palestinian Jews. Realizing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, the Jewish leadership created the Haganah to protect their farms and Kibbutzim. In addition to guarding Jewish communities, the role of the Haganah was to warn the residents of and repel attacks by Palestinian Arabs. In the period between 1920 and 1929, the Haganah lacked a strong central authority or coordination. Haganah "units" were very localized and poorly armed: they consisted mainly of Jewish farmers who took turns guarding their farms or their kibbutzim. Following the Arab massacres of 1929, the Haganah's role changed dramatically. It became a much larger organization encompassing nearly all the youth and adults in the Jewish settlements, as well as thousands of members from the cities. It also acquired foreign arms and began to develop workshops to create hand grenades and simple military equipment, transforming from an untrained militia to a capable underground army.

Palmach

The Palmach (Hebrew: פלמ"ח, an acronym for Plugot Mahatz (Hebrew: פלוגות מחץ), Strike Companies) was the regular fighting force of the Haganah, the unofficial army of the Yishuv (Jewish community) during the British Mandate of Palestine. It was established on May 15, 1941, and by the war of 1948 had grown to three fighting brigades and auxiliary aerial, naval and intelligence units. Being a Palmachnik (Palmach member) was considered not only as performing military duties, but also as a way of life. Significant leaders of the Palmach include Moshe Dayan, Yitzhak Sadeh, Yigal Allon and future prime minister Yitzhak Rabin.

The Palmach contributed significantly to Israeli culture and ethos, well beyond its undoubtedly military contribution. Its members formed the backbone of the Israel Defense Forces high command for many years, and were prominent in Israeli politics, literature and culture.

The Palmach was established by the British military and Haganah on May 15, 1941, to help the British protect Palestine from the Nazi German threat. They were also to assist Allied forces with the planned invasion of Syria and Lebanon, then held by Vichy French forces. British experts trained the Palmach special soldiers and equipped them with small arms and explosives. However, after the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1943, the British ordered the dismantling of Palmach. Instead the whole organisation went underground.

Irgun

Irgun (Hebrew : ארגון; shorthand for Ha'Irgun Ha'Tsvai Ha'Leumi B'Eretz Yisrael, הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראל, "National Military Organization in the Land of Israel") was a clandestine Zionist group that operated in Palestine from 1931 to 1948, as a militant offshoot of the earlier and larger Haganah (Hebrew: "The Defense", ההגנה) Jewish paramilitary organization. In Israel, Irgun is commonly referred to as Etzel (אצ״ל), an acronym of the Hebrew initials. For secrecy reasons, people often referred to the Irgun, in the time in which it operated, as Haganah Bet (Hebrew: literally "Defense 'B' " or "Second Defense" הגנה ב), Haganah Ha'leumit (ההגנה הלאומית) or Ha'ma'amad (המעמד).

The group made attacks against Arab and Palestinian groups a central part of their initial efforts. It was armed expression of the nascent ideology of Revisionist Zionism, expressed by Ze'ev Jabotinsky as that "every Jew had the right to enter Palestine; only active retaliation would deter the Arabs and the British; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state". [59] The organization was a political predecessor movement to Israel's right-wing Herut (or "Freedom") party, which led to today's Likud party.

The most well-known attack by Irgun was the bombing of King David Hotel in Jerusalem on 22 July 1946. British authorities condemned Irgun as terrorists already in the 1930s. [60]

Lehi

Lehi (Hebrew pronunciation: [ˈleχi] , an acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel", לח"י – לוחמי חירות ישראל), also known as the "Stern Group" or "Stern Gang", was an armed underground Zionist faction in Mandatory Palestine that had as its goal the eviction of the British from Palestine to allow unrestricted immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state. The name of the group became "Lehi" only after the death of its founder, Avraham Stern.

Israel

Israeli Security Forces

Israeli Security Forces is used to describe a group of organizations which are charged with the preservation of Israel's territory and civilian public. The organizations are independent but cooperate with each other, some are volunteer, some are professional, and others are both. The list includes military institutions, government agencies, law enforcement organizations, and first aid organizations:

Israel Defense Forces

The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) (Hebrew : צבא ההגנה לישראל Tzva HaHagana LeYisrael ⓘ , "Defense Military of Israel", commonly known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym צה"ל, pronounced Tzahal), is the name of Israel's military forces, comprising the:

See also

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The history of Israel covers an area of the Southern Levant also known as Canaan, Palestine or the Holy Land, which is the geographical location of the modern states of Israel and Palestine. From a prehistory as part of the critical Levantine corridor, which witnessed waves of early humans out of Africa, to the emergence of Natufian culture c. 10th millennium BCE, the region entered the Bronze Age c. 2,000 BCE with the development of Canaanite civilization, before being vassalized by Egypt in the Late Bronze Age. In the Iron Age, the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were established, entities that were central to the origins of the Jewish and Samaritan peoples as well as the Abrahamic faith tradition. This has given rise to Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, Islam, Druzism, Baha'ism, and a variety of other religious movements. Throughout the course of human history, the Land of Israel has seen many conflicts and come under the sway or control of various polities and, as a result, it has historically hosted a wide variety of ethnic groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Judah</span> Israelite kingdom in the Southern Levant

The Kingdom of Judah was an Israelite kingdom of the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. Centered in the highlands to the west of the Dead Sea, the kingdom's capital was Jerusalem. It was ruled by the Davidic line for four centuries. The topographical region of Judea and the ethnographic name Jews are derived from the ancient kingdom.

Haganah was the main Zionist paramilitary organization that operated for the Yishuv in the British Mandate for Palestine. It was founded in 1920 to defend the Yishuv's presence in the region, and was formally disbanded in 1948, when it became the core force integrated into the Israel Defense Forces shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Babylonian captivity</span> Period in Jewish history during the 6th century BCE

The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile was the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were forcibly relocated to Babylonia by the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The deportations occurred in multiple waves: After the siege of Jerusalem in 597 BCE, around 7,000 individuals were deported to Mesopotamia. Further deportations followed the destruction of Jerusalem and Solomon's Temple in 587 BCE.

This is a list of notable events in the development of Jewish history. All dates are given according to the Common Era, not the Hebrew calendar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of Jerusalem</span>

This is a timeline of major events in the history of Jerusalem; a city that had been fought over sixteen times in its history. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish history</span>

Jewish history is the history of the Jews, their nation, religion, and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Jerusalem</span>

Jerusalem is one of the world's oldest cities, with a history spanning over 5,000 years. Its origins trace back to around 3000 BCE, with the first settlement near the Gihon Spring. The city is first mentioned in Egyptian execration texts around 2000 BCE as "Rusalimum." By the 17th century BCE, Jerusalem had developed into a fortified city under Canaanite rule, with massive walls protecting its water system. During the Late Bronze Age, Jerusalem became a vassal of Ancient Egypt, as documented in the Amarna letters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish diaspora</span> Dispersion of Jews around the globe

The Jewish diaspora or exile is the dispersion of Israelites or Jews out of their ancient ancestral homeland and their subsequent settlement in other parts of the globe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palmach</span> Elite strike force of the Haganah in Mandatory Palestine

The Palmach was the elite combined strike forces and sayeret unit of the Haganah, the underground army of the Yishuv during the period of the British Mandate for Palestine. The Palmach was established in May 1941. By the outbreak of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, it consisted of over 2,000 men and women in three fighting brigades and auxiliary aerial, naval and intelligence units. With the creation of Israel's army, the three Palmach Brigades were disbanded. This and political reasons compelled many of the senior Palmach officers to resign in 1950.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bar Kokhba revolt</span> Jewish rebellion against Roman rule (132–136 CE)

The Bar Kokhba revolt was a large-scale armed rebellion initiated by the Jews of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire in 132 CE. Lasting until 135 or early 136, it was the third and final escalation of the Jewish–Roman wars. Like the First Jewish–Roman War and the Second Jewish–Roman War, the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in a total Jewish defeat; Bar Kokhba himself was killed by Roman troops at Betar in 135 and the Jewish rebels who remained after his death were all killed or enslaved within the next year.

The history of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel begins in the 2nd millennium BCE, when Israelites emerged as an outgrowth of southern Canaanites. During biblical times, a postulated United Kingdom of Israel existed but then split into two Israelite kingdoms occupying the highland zone: the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the Kingdom of Judah by the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Initially exiled to Babylon, upon the defeat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great, many of the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem, building the Second Temple.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine</span> 1944–1948 paramilitary terror campaign

A successful paramilitary campaign, sometimes referred to as the Palestine Emergency, was carried out by Zionist underground groups against British rule in Mandatory Palestine from 1944 to 1948. The tensions between the Zionist underground and the British mandatory authorities rose from 1938 and intensified with the publication of the White Paper of 1939. The Paper outlined new government policies to place further restrictions on Jewish immigration and land purchases, and declared the intention of giving independence to Palestine, with an Arab majority, within ten years. Though World War II brought relative calm, tensions again escalated into an armed struggle towards the end of the war, when it became clear that the Axis powers were close to defeat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Second Temple period</span> Period in Jewish history, c. 516 BC–70 AC

The Second Temple period or post-exilic period in Jewish history denotes the approximately 600 years during which the Second Temple stood in the city of Jerusalem. It began with the return to Zion and subsequent reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, and ended with the First Jewish–Roman War and the Roman siege of Jerusalem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Palestine</span>

Situated between three continents, the region of Palestine has a tumultuous history as a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. The region was among the earliest to see human habitation, agricultural communities and civilization. In the Bronze Age, the Canaanites established city-states influenced by surrounding civilizations, among them Egypt, which ruled the area in the Late Bronze Age. During the Iron Age, two related Israelite kingdoms, Israel and Judah, controlled much of Palestine, while the Philistines occupied its southern coast. The Assyrians conquered the region in the 8th century BCE, then the Babylonians in c. 601 BCE, followed by the Persians who conquered the Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE. Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in the late 330s BCE, beginning Hellenization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Judea</span> Region in the Levant

Judea or Judaea is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the present day; it originates from Yehudah, a Hebrew name. Yehudah was a son of Jacob, who was later given the name "Israel" and whose sons collectively headed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Yehudah's progeny among the Israelites formed the Tribe of Judah, with whom the Kingdom of Judah is associated. Related nomenclature continued to be used under the rule of the Babylonians, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. Under the Hasmoneans, the Herodians, and the Romans, the term was applied to an area larger than Judea of earlier periods. In 132 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was merged with Galilee to form the enlarged province of Syria Palaestina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Jews in the Roman Empire</span>

The history of the Jews in the Roman Empire traces the interaction of Jews and Romans during the period of the Roman Empire. A Jewish diaspora had migrated to Rome and to the territories of Roman Europe from the land of Israel, Anatolia, Babylon and Alexandria in response to economic hardship and incessant warfare over the land of Israel between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires from the 4th to the 1st centuries BCE. In Rome, Jewish communities thrived economically. Jews became a significant part of the Roman Empire's population in the first century CE, with some estimates as high as 7 million people; however, this estimation has been questioned.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Judah's revolts against Babylon</span> 601–586 BCE conflict between the Kingdom of Judah and the Neo-Babylonian Empire

Judah's revolts against Babylon were attempts by the Kingdom of Judah to escape dominance by the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Resulting in a Babylonian victory and the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah, it marked the beginning of the prolonged hiatus in Jewish self-rule in Judaea until the Maccabean Revolt of the 2nd century BCE. Babylonian forces captured the capital city of Jerusalem and destroyed Solomon's Temple, completing the fall of Judah, an event which marked the beginning of the Babylonian captivity, a period in Jewish history in which a large number of Judeans were forcibly removed from Judah and resettled in Mesopotamia.

For historical and contemporary Jewish populations by country, see Jews by country.

References

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  2. 1 2 Yurco, Frank J (1986). "Merenptah's Canaanite Campaign". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 23: 189–190. doi:10.2307/40001099. ISSN   0065-9991.
  3. ↑ Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical peoples and ethnicity: an archaeological study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300 -1100 B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature archaeology and biblical studies. Leiden: Brill. p. 154. ISBN   978-1-58983-097-4.
  4. ↑ Gabriel, Richard A. (2003). The military history of ancient Israel. Westport, Conn: Praeger. p. 143. ISBN   978-0-275-97798-6.
  5. ↑ Battle of Qarqar, at livius.org
  6. ↑ Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (2004). Identifying biblical persons in Northwest Semitic inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. Academia biblica. Leiden Boston (Mass.): Brill. pp. 119–124. ISBN   978-90-04-12724-1.
  7. 1 2 3 Aḥituv, Shmuel (2012). Hak- ketāv we-ham-miktāv: asûppat ketôvôt mī-Ereṣ-Yiśrāʾēl û-mi-mamlāḵôt ʿēver hay-Yardēn m-îmê bêt-rîšôn = Ha- ketav vehamiktav. The biblical encyclopaedia library (2. ed., expanded and corrected ed.). Yerûšālayim: Môsad Beyâlîq. p. 431. ISBN   978-965-536-072-1.
  8. 1 2 Lemaire, André (December 1998). "The Tel Dan Stela as a Piece of Royal Historiography". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 23 (81): 4. doi:10.1177/030908929802308101. ISSN   0309-0892.
  9. ↑ Biran, Avraham; Naveh, Joseph (1995). "The Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment". Israel Exploration Journal. 45 (1): 1–18. ISSN   0021-2059.
  10. ↑ C. Hassell Bullock (May 2007). An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books. Moody Publishers. p. 340. ISBN   9781575674360.
  11. 1 2 3 2 Kings 24
  12. ↑ 2 Chronicles 36
  13. ↑ Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle
  14. ↑ Cohn, Marc (2007). The Mathematics of the Calendar. Lulu.com. p. 60. ISBN   978-1430324966.
  15. ↑ Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2005). Theatre, Sacrifice, Ritual: Exploring Forms of Political Theatre . Routledge. p.  195. ISBN   978-0415276757.
  16. 1 2 3 Applebaum, Shimon (1989-01-01), "The Troopers of Zamaris", Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times, Brill, p. 47, ISBN   978-90-04-66664-1 , retrieved 2024-06-15
  17. ↑ Saddington, Denis B. (2009-01-01), "Client Kings Armies Under Augustus: The Case Of Herod", Herod and Augustus, Brill, p. 317, doi:10.1163/ej.9789004165465.i-418.81, ISBN   978-90-474-4309-4 , retrieved 2024-06-15
  18. ↑ Dauphin, Claudine M. (1982). "Jewish and Christian Communities in the Roman and Byzantine Gaulanitis : A Study of Evidence from Archaeological Surveys". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 114 (2): 129–130. doi:10.1179/peq.1982.114.2.129. ISSN   0031-0328. The Roman Emperor Augustus sought to contain this source of unrest by annexing the neighbouring districts of Batanea, Trachonitis and Auranitis. These he placed under Herod's administration in 23 B.C.E., and in 20 B.C.E. he added the area of Gaulanitis itself, the city of Pane as and the Ulatha Valley, all of which had until then been ruled by the kingdom of Iturea. To implement this new rule and maintain the peace, Herod initiated an extensive programme of paramilitary settlement. He transferred 3,000 Idumeans to the area of Trachonitis and 500 families of Jewish soldiers to Batanea, rewarding them by exemption from taxation (Ant. XVII, 2, 1-3).
  19. ↑ Cohen, Getzel (2015-01-01), "9 Travel between Palestine and Mesopotamia during the Hellenistic and Roman Periods: A Preliminary Study", The Archaeology and Material Culture of the Babylonian Talmud, Brill, p. 206, doi:10.1163/9789004304895_011, ISBN   978-90-04-30489-5 , retrieved 2024-06-15
  20. ↑ Applebaum, Shimon (1989-01-01), "ʿEin Targhuna", Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times, Brill, pp. 66–69, doi:10.1163/9789004666641_009, ISBN   978-90-04-66664-1 , retrieved 2024-06-18
  21. ↑ Roth, Jonathan P.; Hekster, Olivier; de Kleijn, Gerda (2007), de Blois, Lukas; Lo Cascio, Elio (eds.), "Jews and the Roman Army: Perceptions and Realities", The Impact of the Roman Army (200 B.C. – A.D. 476), Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects, Brill, p. 414, ISBN   978-90-04-16044-6, JSTOR   10.1163/j.ctv2gjwsqg.28 , retrieved 2024-06-18
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Zeev, Miriam Pucci Ben (2006-06-22), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), "The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117", The Cambridge History of Judaism (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 93–106, doi:10.1017/chol9780521772488.005, ISBN   978-1-139-05513-0 , retrieved 2024-09-08
  23. ↑ Isaac, Benjamin Henri (1993). The Limits of Empire: the Roman Army in the East (Revised ed.). Oxford: Clarendon press. p. 55. ISBN   978-0-19-814952-1.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Eshel, Hanan (2006), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), "The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135", The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 108, 113, 123–127, doi:10.1017/chol9780521772488.006, ISBN   978-0-521-77248-8 , retrieved 2024-09-11
  25. ↑ Taylor, J. E. (15 November 2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199554485. These texts, combined with the relics of those who hid in caves along the western side of the Dead Sea, tell us a great deal. What is clear from the evidence of both skeletal remains and artefacts is that the Roman assault on the Jewish population of the Dead Sea was so severe and comprehensive that no one came to retrieve precious legal documents, or bury the dead. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction
  26. ↑ Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021-05-27). "Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 34 (2): 585–607. doi: 10.1017/S1047759421000271 . ISSN   1047-7594. S2CID   236389017.
  27. ↑ Powell, Lindsay; Dennis, Peter (2017). The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136: the last Jewish revolt against imperial Rome. Campaign. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 80–81. ISBN   978-1-4728-1798-3.
  28. ↑ Eshel, Hanan; Zissu, Boaz (2019). "The Refuge Caves". The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Archaeological Evidence. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi. pp. 62–64. ISBN   978-965-217-429-1.
  29. ↑ Eck, Werner (1999). "The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View". The Journal of Roman Studies. 89: 89. doi:10.2307/300735. ISSN   1753-528X.
  30. ↑ "SAMUEL IBN 'ADIYA - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com.
  31. ↑ Xu, Xin. The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, and Religion. Ktav Publishing House, Inc., 2004 ( ISBN   0881257915), p. 9
  32. ↑ Xu: p. 19
  33. ↑ Weisz, Tiberiu. The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China. New York: iUniverse, 2006 ( ISBN   0-595-37340-2), p. 74
  34. 1 2 Weisz: p. 11, see footnotes 50–53 on p. 13
  35. ↑ Weisz: p. 26
  36. ↑ Weisz: footnote # 111 on p. 26
  37. ↑ Weisz: footnote # 76 on p. 18
  38. ↑ Weisz: p. 12
  39. ↑ Weisz: p. 13
  40. 1 2 White, William Charles. Chinese Jews. New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation, 1966 (2nd Edition), p. 17
  41. ↑ The Jews of Habban South Yemen, Jewish Communities in Exotic Places, by Ken Blady, Jason Aronson, Inc, Northvale, New Jersey, Jerusalem, 2000, p. 32
  42. ↑ Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher, pp. 83 et seq.
  43. ↑ ibid. p. 70
  44. ↑ The Mountain Jews of Daghestan, Jewish Communities in Exotic Places by Ken Blady (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc., 2000), p. 158
  45. ↑ Blady, Ken (2000-03-01). Jewish Communities in Exotic Places. Jason Aronson, Incorporated. ISBN   978-1-4616-2908-5.
  46. ↑ "The hirshon azerbaijani mountain jew omelette khoyagusht". www.thefooddictator.com.
  47. ↑ "DAGHESTAN - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com.
  48. ↑ The Mountain Jews of Daghestan, Jewish Communities in Exotic Places by Ken Blady (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc., 2000), pp. 158–159
  49. ↑ Tarikh el-Fettash, by Mahmoud Kati ben El-Hajj El Motaoukkal Kati, 1657, pp. 62–63
  50. ↑ Army article in the Jewish Encyclopedia (1906) by Morris Jastrow, Jr., J. Frederic McCurdy, Richard Gottheil, Kaufmann Kohler, Francis L. Cohen, Herman Rosenthal
  51. ↑ Graetz, "History of the Jews", iii. 386; German ed., vi. 229
  52. ↑ Graetz, ib. iii. 592; German ed., vii. 136
  53. ↑ Graetz, ib. iv. 123 et seq.; German ed., vii. 424
  54. ↑ Brown, Michael L. Our Hands Are Stained with Blood: The Tragic Story of the "Church" and the Jewish People. Shippensburg, PA: Destiny Image Publishers, 1992 ( ISBN   1560430680)
  55. ↑ CRoss Purposes: The Crusades Archived October 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine (Hoover Institute television show). The entire episode can be viewed with RealPlayer or Windows Media Player. The website includes the corresponding transcription of the dialogue between the host and two guests.
  56. ↑ Kedar, Benjamin Z., "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades." in The Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004). Edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar and Jonathan S.C. Riley-Smith. Bodmin: MPG Books Ltd, 2004 ( ISBN   075464099X)
  57. ↑ Gibb, H. A. R. The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi. Dover Publications, 2003 ( ISBN   0486425193), p. 48
  58. ↑ http://www.jewishjournal.com/up_front/article/ahoy_mayteys_thar_be_jewish_pirates_20060915/ [ dead link ]
  59. ↑ Howard Sachar: A History of the State of Israel, pp. 265–266
  60. ↑ "ww2peopleswar".
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