Jewish secularism, which describes Jews who do not explicitly reject God's existence but also do not believe it is an important part of their Jewishness, has a long tradition in the United States.[4] A 2013 study by the Pew Research Center found that 62% of self-described American Jews say being Jewish is mainly a matter of ancestry and culture, while just 15% say it is mainly a matter of religion. Even among Jews by religion, 55% say being Jewish is mainly a matter of ancestry and culture, while 66% say it is not necessary to believe in God to be Jewish.[5]
Organized Jewish life
Atheist and secular Jewish organizations mostly date to the 20th century, from the Jewish socialist Bund in early-20th-century Poland to the modern Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations and the Society for Humanistic Judaism in the United States.
Many Jewish atheists feel comfortable within any of the three major non-Orthodox Jewish denominations (Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist). This is less of a contradiction than it might first seem, given Judaism's emphasis on practice over belief, with even mainstream guides to Judaism suggesting that belief in God is not necessary for Jewish observance.[6] But Orthodox Judaism regards the acceptance of the "Yoke of Heaven" (the sovereignty of the God of Israel in the world and the divine origin of the Torah) as a fundamental obligation for Jews, and the Reform movement has rejected atheistic temples' efforts at affiliation even though many Reform Jews are atheist or agnostic.[7] Nevertheless, there are many atheists in many denominations of modern Judaism, from Humanistic Judaism to Conservative Judaism.[8]
Jewish theology
19th-century and early-20th-century Reform Judaism in the U.S., which became the dominant form of Judaism there by the 1880s, was profoundly shaped by its engagement with high-profile skeptics and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Felix Adler. These included the writings of rabbis such as Isaac Mayer Wise, Kaufmann Kohler, Emil G. Hirsch, Joseph Krauskopf, Aaron Hahn, and J. Leonard Levy, resulting in a distinctly panentheistic U.S. Reform Jewish theology, which many would have viewed as atheistic or having atheistic tendencies.[9]
Liberal Jewish theology makes few metaphysical claims and is thus compatible with atheism on an ontological level. The founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, Mordecai Kaplan, espoused a naturalistic definition of God, and some post-Holocaust theology has also eschewed a personal god.[10][11] The Jewish philosopher Howard Wettstein has advanced a non-metaphysical approach to religious commitment, according to which metaphysical theism-atheism is not the issue.[12]Harold Schulweis, a Conservative rabbi trained in the Reconstructionist tradition, has argued that Jewish theology should move from a focus on God to an emphasis on "godliness". This "predicate theology", while continuing to use theistic language, makes few metaphysical claims that non-believers would find objectionable.[13][14]
Many Jewish atheists reject even this level of ritualized and symbolic identification, instead embracing a thoroughgoing secularism and basing their Jewishness entirely in ethnicity and secular Jewish culture. Possibilities for secular Jewishness include identification with Jewish history and peoplehood, immersion in Jewish literature (including such non-religious Jewish authors as Philip Roth and Amos Oz), consumption of Jewish food, use of Jewish humor, and attachment to Jewish languages such as Yiddish, Hebrew, and Ladino. A high proportion of Israeli Jews consider themselves secular, rejecting some religious practices (see Religion in Israel). While some non-believers of Jewish ancestry do not consider themselves Jews, preferring to define themselves solely as atheists, others believe Judaism is a culture and tradition that can be embraced without religious faith.[15]
Many Jewish atheists continue to observe Jewish traditions, holidays, and customs, but view them more as cultural heritage than religious obligations. For example, celebrating Hanukkah or Passover can be seen as an important family and cultural ritual rather than a religious act.[16][17] In the documentary series Еврейское счастье (Jewish Happiness), alongside exploring other aspects, the question "Who is a Jew?" is extensively discussed. In one episode, a family of atheists deeply engages in certain Jewish religious traditions, such as Shabbat, which, one of the documentary's characters asserts, has come to us as a tradition from ancient times but fits very well into contemporary reality. Specifically, it provides the opportunity to spend a whole day communicating with one's children, free from pervasive modern issues like phubbing and FOMO.[18]
Some Jewish atheists are active in secular and humanist movements that advocate separation of church and state, human rights, and a scientific worldview.[19][20]
Famous atheist or agnostic Jews include Albert Einstein, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud. Their views on religion influenced their work and philosophical positions as well as subsequent scientists and philosophers.[21][22][23] Many well-known Jews have rejected a belief in deities. Some have denied the existence of a traditional deity while continuing to use religious language. Marx was born into an ethnically Jewish family but raised as a Lutheran, and is among the most notable and influential atheist thinkers of modern history; he developed dialectical and historical materialism, which became the basis for his critique of capitalism and theories of scientific socialism. He was a major influence on other prominent Jewish intellectuals, including Moses Hess. One of Marx's most cited comments on religion is "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people."[24]
The contradictory symbiosis between religiosity and atheism among atheists in the Jewish context has ambivalent qualities and is discussed extensively in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, as is how Jewish thinkers deal with these dynamics. This nuanced connection is also evident in other prominent Jewish atheists who maintained their cultural identity. The text discusses how the concept of religion developed in a Judeo-Christian context can be incorrect when applied outside that context. But careful application of these concepts can shed light on the unique perspectives of Jewish atheists who still value their cultural heritage.[25][26] In Freud's The Future of an Illusion, he eschews religious belief and outlines its origins and prospects. But Freud also urged a Jewish colleague to raise his son in the Jewish religion, saying, "If you do not let your son grow up as a Jew, you will deprive him of those sources of energy which cannot be replaced by anything else."[27] Other researchers have written about Freud's views on religion and Jewish identity.[28][29]
Other famous Jews have wholeheartedly embraced atheism, rejecting religiosity altogether. The anarchist Emma Goldman was born to an Orthodox Jewish family and rejected belief in God,[30] while the Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, when asked if she believed in God, answered: "I believe in the Jewish people, and the Jewish people believe in God."[31] Of David Ben-Gurion, the founder of Israel known for his atheism, it was often said: "Although he didn't believe in God, it seems God believed in him."[32]Woody Allen's work often explores the tension between his Jewishness and religious doubt ("Not only is there no God, but try getting a plumber on weekends").[33]David Silverman, president of the American Atheists from 2010 to 2018, swore after his bar mitzvah that he would never again lie about his atheism.[34] American Jewish author Philip Roth was an outspoken atheist and called himself anti-religious.[citation needed]Ayn Rand, a Russia-born American philosopher of Jewish descent, was a staunch atheist and considered atheism an integral part of her philosophy of objectivism. Her atheistic ideas significantly influenced libertarianism and individualism.[35]
Research studies
Jewish atheism has a long history, with recorded sources dating to the 17th century. Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza is considered the Jewish herald of the secular age.[36][37] In his Historical and Critical Dictionary, Pierre Bayle called Spinoza "the greatest atheist". Jewish thinkers of the 19th century were especially zealous in accusing Spinoza of atheism (criticizing his work Ethics),[38][39][40][41] especially in terms of his denial of "revelation", but this was not atheism in the modern sense.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, many Jews embraced secular and socialist ideals. Particularly in the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries, many Jews became atheists under the influence of communist ideology.[42][43][44]
Confirming the diverse history of Jewish atheism, reflecting a wide range of views and approaches to faith and identity, a blog entry by Vladimir Minkov on the Times of Israel portal notes that a significant portion of modern U.S. Jews identify themselves as atheists or agnostics. Minkov argues that this is due to various factors, including lack of deep understanding of Jewish religious teachings and desire to find a Jewish identity outside traditional religious frameworks.[45] Some interviews with Jewish atheists show that many of them continue to observe Jewish traditions and participate in cultural activities despite renouncing their religious beliefs. This demonstrates ambivalence when cultural-ethnic identity and a certain religiosity are preserved even in the absence of faith in God.[46] Thus atheism among Jews is not only widespread but multifaceted, providing rich material for research and discussion on the topic of faith and identity in the Jewish context and making atheism among Jews an interesting subject for interdisciplinary research.[47]
↑ Langton, Daniel R. "Discourses of Doubt: The Place of Atheism, Scepticism and Infidelity in Nineteenth-Century North American Reform Jewish Thought" in Hebrew Union College Annual (2018) Vol.88. pp. 203-253.
↑ Kaplan, Mordecai (1937). The Meaning of God in Modern Jewish Religion. New York: Behrman's Jewish book house.
↑ An example of an atheist rejecting Jewish identification is cited here: Blowdryer, Jennifer; Orloff, Alvin (January 2005). "Hipster Antisemitism". Zeek.com. Retrieved December 22, 2018.
↑ Malkin, Yaakov (2014). Judaism Without God? Judaism as Culture and Bible as Literature. This book discusses the concept of cultural Judaism, which is separate from religious beliefs.
↑ Rosen, Jonathan (December 14, 2003). "So Was It Odd of God?". The New York Times. Retrieved December 22, 2018. He seems to subscribe to Golda Meir's observation: 'I believe in the Jewish people, and the Jewish people believe in God.'
↑ Hicks, Stephen R. C. "Ayn Rand (1905—1982)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Rockford University. Retrieved August 13, 2024.
↑ Nadler, Steven (2011). A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age. Princeton University Press. pp.166–168.
↑ Пивоваров, Д.В. (2012). "Спиноза: философия религии". cyberleninka.ru (in Russian). Вестник экономики, управления и права, no. 1 (18). pp.65-75 (2012). Retrieved July 9, 2024.
↑ Graetz, Heinrich (1853). Geschichte der Juden[History of the Jews] (in German). 11 volumes. Jewish Publication Society of America.
↑ Hirsch Weiss, Isaac (1871). Dor Dor ve-Dorshav[Each Generation and its Scholars] (in Hebrew). 8 volumes.
↑ Bell, David R. (1984). Spinoza in Germany from 1670 to the Age of Goethe. University of Chicago Press.
↑ Harvey, Warren Zev (2000). The Rise of Modern Jewish Thought. Brandeis University Press.
↑ The Atheist Jewish Community in Soviet Russia / YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. This encyclopedia provides an overview of the history of Jewish atheism in the Soviet Union. ISBN9780300119039.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
In Judaism, the concept of the Jews as chosen people is the belief that the Jews as a subset, via partial descent from the ancient Israelites, are also chosen people, i.e. selected to be in a covenant with God. Israelites being properly the chosen people of God is found directly in the Book of Deuteronomy 7:6 as the verb baḥar (בָּחַר), and is alluded to elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible using other terms such as "holy people" as goy or gentile, Book of Exodus 19:6. Much is written about these topics in rabbinic literature. The three largest Jewish denominations—Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism—maintain the belief that the Jews have been chosen by God for a purpose. Sometimes this choice is seen by believers as charging the Jewish people with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah. Isaiah and Jeremiah viewed God's loving choice of Israel as a means to teaching monotheism, combatting idolatry, curbing human arrogance, ending violence, lust, greed, extreme chauvinism and warfare, and ushering in a new society.
Judaism is an Abrahamic monotheistic ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of observing the Mosaic covenant, which was established between God and the Israelites, their ancestors. The religion is considered one of the earliest monotheistic religions in the world.
The term Judeo-Christian is used to group Christianity and Judaism together, either in reference to Christianity's derivation from Judaism, Christianity's recognition of Jewish scripture to constitute the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, or values supposed to be shared by the two religions. The term Judæo Christian first appeared in the 19th century as a word for Jewish converts to Christianity. The term has received criticism, largely from Jewish thinkers, as relying on and perpetuating notions of supersessionism, as well as glossing over fundamental differences between Jewish and Christian thought, theology, culture and practice.
Judaism does not centralize authority in any single individual or group. The formulation of principles of faith that are universally recognized by all branches of Judaism remains undefined. There is no central authority in Judaism in existence today - although the Sanhedrin, the supreme Jewish religious court, would fulfill this role if it were re-established. Instead, Judaism's principles of faith remain debated by the rabbis based on their understanding of the sacred writings, laws, and traditions, which collectively shape its theological and ethical framework. The most accepted version in extent is the opinion of Maimonides.
Irreligion is the absence or rejection of religious beliefs or practices. It encompasses a wide range of viewpoints drawn from various philosophical and intellectual perspectives, including atheism, agnosticism, skepticism, rationalism, secularism, and spiritual but not religious. These perspectives can vary, with individuals who identify as irreligious holding diverse beliefs about religion and its role in their lives.
Nontheism or non-theism is a range of both religious and non-religious attitudes characterized by the absence of espoused belief in the existence of God or gods. Nontheism has generally been used to describe apathy or silence towards the subject of gods and differs from atheism, or active disbelief in any gods. It has been used as an umbrella term for summarizing various distinct and even mutually exclusive positions, such as agnosticism, ignosticism, ietsism, skepticism, pantheism, pandeism, transtheism, atheism, and apatheism. It is in use in the fields of Christian apologetics and general liberal theology.
Humanistic Judaism is a Jewish movement that offers a nontheistic alternative to contemporary branches of Judaism. It defines Judaism as the cultural and historical experience of the Jewish people rather than a religion, and encourages Jews who are humanistic and secular to celebrate their identity by participating in relevant holidays and rites of passage with inspirational ceremonies that go beyond traditional literature while still drawing upon it.
Schisms among the Jews are cultural as well as religious. They have happened as a product of historical accident, geography, and theology.
Early criticism of Judaism and its texts, laws, and practices originated in inter-faith polemics between Christianity and Judaism. Important disputations in the Middle Ages gave rise to widely publicized criticisms. Modern criticisms also reflect the inter-branch Jewish schisms between Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism.
Some movements or sects within traditionally monotheistic or polytheistic religions recognize that it is possible to practice religious faith, spirituality and adherence to tenets without a belief in deities. People with what would be considered religious or spiritual belief in a supernatural controlling power are defined by some as adherents to a religion; the argument that atheism is a religion has been described as a contradiction in terms.
Jewish skeptics are Jews who have held skeptical views on matters of the Jewish religion. In general, these skeptical views regard some or all of the "principles of faith," whatever these may be, but historically Jewish skepticism is directed either at (1) the existence of the God of Judaism or (2) the authenticity and veracity of the Torah.
Jewish secularism refers to secularism in a Jewish context, denoting the definition of Jewish identity with little or no attention given to its religious aspects. The concept of Jewish secularism first arose in the late 19th century, with its influence peaking during the interwar period.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to atheism:
Christian atheism is an ideology that embraces the teachings, narratives, symbols, practices, or communities associated with Christianity without accepting the literal existence of God. It often overlaps with nontheism and post-theism.
Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists.
Hiloni, plural hilonim, is a social category in Israel, designating the least religious segment among the Jewish public. The other three subgroups on the scale of Jewish-Israeli religiosity are the masortim, "traditional"; datiim, "religious"; and haredim, "ultra-religious" ("ultra-Orthodox"). In the 2018 Israel Central Bureau of Statistics' survey, 43.2% of Jews identified as hiloni.
Atheism, as defined by the entry in Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, is "the opinion of those who deny the existence of a God in the world. The simple ignorance of God doesn't constitute atheism. To be charged with the odious title of atheism one must have the notion of God and reject it." In the period of the Enlightenment, avowed and open atheism was made possible by the advance of religious toleration, but was also far from encouraged.
Yaakov Malkin was an Israeli educator, literary critic, and professor emeritus in the Faculty of Arts at Tel Aviv University. He was active in several institutions that deal with both cultural and Humanistic Judaism.
Irreligion in Israel is difficult to measure. Though Israeli Jewish society is highly secularized when compared to the rest of the Middle East, the importance of religion in state life leaves little room for total disengagement from it. Some 20% of Israeli Jews do not believe in a deity, and some 15% claim to observe no religious practices. Israeli Arab society is much more religious, with any degree of secularity barely acknowledged.
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