Various prescribed movements in salah, which collectively constitute a rak'ah. From left to right: rukū', qiyām/i'tidal, sujūd, takbīr, and qu'ūd/julūs.
Salah (Arabic: ٱلصَّلَاةُ, romanized:aṣ-Ṣalāh) is the practice of formal worship in Islam, comprising of a series of ritual prayers performed at prescribed times daily. Facing the Kaaba in Mecca, it consists of units known as rak'ah, which include a specific set of physical postures, recitation from the Quran, and prayers from the Sunnah.[1] The number of rak'ah varies depending on the specific prayer. Variations in practice are observed among adherents of different madhahib (schools of Islamic jurisprudence). The term salah may denote worship in general or specifically refer to the obligatory prayers performed by Muslims five times daily, or, in some traditions, three times daily.[2][3][4]
The obligatory prayers play an integral role in the Islamic faith, and are regarded as the second and most important, after shahadah, of the Five Pillars of Islam for Sunnis, and one of the Ancillaries of the Faith for Shiites. In addition, supererogatorysalah, such as Sunnah prayer and Nafl prayer, may be performed at any time, subject to certain restrictions. Wudu, an act of ritual purification, is required prior to performing salah. Prayers may be conducted individually or in congregation, with certain prayers, such as the Friday and Eid prayers, requiring a collective setting and akhutbah (sermon). Some concessions are made for Muslims who are physically unable to perform the salah in its original form, or are travelling.
The origin of the word is debated. Some have suggested that salah derives from the triliteral rootو-ص-ل (w-ṣ-l) which means 'linking things together',[7] relating it to the obligatory prayers in the sense that one connects to Allah through prayer. In some translations, namely that of QuranistRashad Khalifa, salah is translated as the 'contact prayer',[8] either because of the physical contact the head makes with the ground during the prostration, or again because the prayer connects the one who performs it to Allah. Another theory suggests the word derives from the triliteral root ص-ل-و (ṣ-l-w), the meaning of which is not agreed upon.[9][full citation needed][10]
The word salah is mentioned 83 times in the Quran as a noun.[12][13]
Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) divides human actions into five categories, known as "the five rulings" (al-aḥkām al-khamsa), and acts of worship will be classified accordingly; mandatory (farḍ or wājib), recommended (mandūb or mustaḥabb), neutral (mubāḥ), reprehensible (makrūh), and forbidden (ḥarām).[14][15]Salah is generally classified into obligatory or mandatory (fard) prayers and supererogatory prayers, the latter being further divided into Sunnah prayers and Nafl prayers.
Hanafifiqh does not consider both terms as synonymous and makes a distinction between "fard" and "wajib"; In Hanafi fiqh, two conditions are required to impose the fard rule. 1. Nass, (only verses of the Qur'an can be accepted as evidence here, not hadiths) 2.The expression of the text referring to the subject must be clear and precise enough not to allow other interpretations. The term wajib is used for situations that do not meet the second of these conditions.[16] However, this understanding may not be sufficient to explain every situation. For example, Hanafis accept 5 daily prayers as fard. However, some religious groups such as Quranists and Shiites, who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray two or three times,[17][18][19][20][21] not five times. In addition, in religious literature, wajib is widely used for all kinds of religious requirements, without expressing any fiqh definition.
According to riwāya, prayer is held extremely important in Islam, and according to all four of the madhabs, those who have a distain towards prayer are no longer seen as Muslims.[22][23]
While some sects claimed that those killed in this way remained Muslims, others claimed that they had apostatized from the religion. In this case, Islamic duties could not be made for their funerals, they would not be buried in Muslim cemeteries, and their heirs could not claim inheritance rights from the property they left behind, and would be public property.[24] However, even if today's dominant understanding defines the abandonment of worship as sinfulness, does not approve of giving worldly punishment for them. However, in sharia governments, their testimony against a devout Muslim may not be accepted, they may be humiliated and barred from certain positions because of this tag. In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to Sharia.[25][26]
In sermon language, the main purpose of the salah is given as acting as a means of communication with Allah.[27] Other emphases include cleansing the heart, getting closer to God, and strengthening faith. It is believed that the soul requires prayer and closeness to Allah to stay sustained and healthy, and that prayer spiritually sustains the human soul, just as food provides nourishment to the physical body.[28]Tafsir (exegesis) of the Quran can give four reasons for the observation of salah. First, in order to commend God, Allah's servants, together with the angels, do salah ("blessing, salutations").[29][a] Second, salah is done involuntarily by all beings in creation, in the sense that they are always in contact with Allah by virtue of him creating and sustaining them.[30][b] Third, Muslims voluntarily offer salah to reveal that it is the particular form of worship that belongs to the prophets.[c] Fourth, salah is described as the second pillar of Islam.[6]
There is consensus on the vast majority of the major details of the salah, but there are different views on some of the more intricate details. A Muslim is required to perform Wudu (ablution) before performing salah,[31][32][33]and making the niyyah (intention) is a prerequisite for all deeds in Islam, including salah. Some schools of Islamic jurisprudence hold that intending to pray suffices in the heart, and some require that the intention be spoken, usually under the breath.[34]
The person praying begins in a standing position known as Qiyam, although people who find it difficult to do so may begin while sitting or lying on the ground.[6] This is followed by raising the hands to the head and recitation of the takbir, an action known as the Takbirat al-Ihram (Arabic: تكبيرة الإحرام, romanized:Takbīrat al-Iḥrām). The hands are then lowered, and may be clasped on the abdomen (qabd), or hang by one's sides (sadl). A Muslim may not converse, eat, or do things that are otherwise halal after the Takbirat al-Ihram. A Muslim must keep their vision low during prayer, looking at the place where their face will contact the ground during prostration.[34][35][36]
A prayer may be said before the recitation of the Quran commences. Next, Al-Fatiha, the first chapter of the Quran, is recited. In the first and second rak'a of all prayers, a surah other than Al-Fatiha or part thereof is recited after Al-Fatiha. This is followed by another takbir after which the person praying bows down their waist in a position known as ruku with their hands on their knees (depending on the madhhab, rules may differ for women). While bowing, specific versions of tasbih are uttered once or more. As the worshipper straightens their back, they say the Arabic phrase "سمع الله لمن حمده" (lit.'Allah hears the one who praises him.'), followed by the phrase "ربنا لك الحمد" (lit.'Our Lord, all praise is for you.')[34]
Following the recitation of these words of praise, the takbir is recited once again before the worshipper kneels and prostrates with the forehead, nose, knees, palms and toes touching the floor, a position known as sujud. Similar to ruku, specific versions of tasbih are uttered once or more in sujud. The worshipper recites the takbir and rises up to sit briefly, then recites takbir and returns to sujud once again. Lifting the head from the second prostration completes a rak'ah. If this is the second or last rak'a, the worshipper rises up to sit once again and recites the Tashahhud, Salawat, and other prayers.[34] Many Sunni scholars, including Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab[37] and Al-Albani[38] hold that the right index finger should be raised when reciting the prayers in this sitting position,[34] Once the worshipper is done praying in the sitting position in their last rak'a, they perform the taslim, reciting lengthened versions of the Islamic greeting As-salamu alaykum, once while facing the right and another time while facing the left. Taslim represents the end of prayer.[39][40][41]
Mistakes and doubts in salah are compensated for by prostrating twice at the end of the prayer, either before or after the taslim depending on the Madhab . These prostrations are known as sujud sahwi (Arabic: سجود السهو, romanized:Sujud as-Sahw).[42]
In Islamic belief, performing salah in congregation is considered to have more social and spiritual benefits than praying alone.[43] The majority of Sunni scholars recommend performing the obligatory salah in congregation without viewing the congregational prayer as an obligation. A minority view exists viewing performing the obligatory salah in congregation as an obligation.[44]
Women performing the Friday prayer at a mosque, Ohio, US
When praying in congregation, the people stand in straight parallel rows behind one person who leads the prayer service, called the imam. The imam must be above the rest in knowledge of the Quran, action, piety, and justness, and should be known to possess faith and commitment the people trust.[45] The prayer is offered just as it is when one prays alone, with the congregation following the imam as they offer their salah.[46] Two people of the same gender praying in congregation would stand beside each other, with the imam on the left and the other person to his right.[citation needed]
When the worshippers consist of men and women combined, a man leads the prayer. In this situation, women are typically forbidden from assuming this role with unanimous agreement within the major schools of Islam. This is disputed by some, partly based on a hadith with controversial interpretations. When the congregation consists entirely of women and/or pre-pubescent children, a woman may lead the prayer.[47] Some configurations allow for rows of men and women to stand side by side separated by a curtain or other barrier,[48] with the primary intention being for there to be no direct line of sight between male and female worshippers.[49]
Places and times at which salah is prohibited
Salah is not performed in graveyards and bathrooms. It is prohibited from being performed after Fajr prayer until sunrise, during a small period of time around noon, and after Asr prayer until sunset. The prohibition of salah at these times is to prevent the practice of sun worship.[50]
Obligatory salah
The daily prayers
Display showing salah times in a Turkish mosque
The word salah, when used to refer to the Sunni second pillar of Islam or the Shia ancillary of faith, refers to the five obligatory daily prayers.[51] Each of the five prayers has a prescribed time which depends on the position of the sun in the sky. Given the Islamic day begins at sunset, the first prayer of the day would be Maghrib, performed directly after sunset. It is followed by the Isha salah that is performed during the night, the Fajr salah performed before sunrise, and the Zuhr and Asr prayers performed in the afternoon.
The five daily prayers must be performed in their prescribed times. However, if extenuating circumstances prevent a Muslim from performing them on time, they must be performed as soon as possible. Several hadith narrations quote the Islamic prophet Muhammad saying that a person who slept past the prescribed time or forgot to perform the obligatory salah must pray it as soon as they remember.[45]
These prayers are considered obligatory upon every adult Muslim,[51] with the exception of those with some physical or mental disabilities,[52]menstruating women, and women experiencing postnatal bleeding.[53] Those who are sick or otherwise physically unable to perform their salah standing may perform them sitting or lying down according to their ability.[54]
Some Muslims pray three times a day, believing the Qur'an mentions three prayers instead of five.[55][56][57]
Friday prayer for Muslims in the streets of Dhaka, Bangladesh
In general, Sunnis view the five daily prayers, in addition to the Friday salah, as obligatory. There is a difference of opinion within the Sunni schools of jurisprudence regarding whether the Eid and Witr prayers are obligatory on all Muslims,[58] obligatory only such that a sufficient number of Muslims perform it,[59] or sunnah.[60]
All Sunni schools of jurisprudence view the Friday salah as an obligatory prayer replacing Zuhr on Fridays exclusively. It is obligatory upon men and is to be prayed in congregation, while women have the choice to offer it in congregation or pray Zuhr at home.[61] Preceding the Friday salah, a khutbah (sermon) is delivered by a khatib, after which the 2 rak'a Friday prayer is performed.[62] A minority view within the Sunni schools holds that listening to the khutbah compensates for the spiritual reward of the 2 rak'a that are discounted from the prayer.[63]
The Eid salah is offered in the morning hours of the Muslim holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. It consists of 2 rak'a, with extra takbirs pronounced before the beginning of the recitation of the Quran in each. The exact number of extra takbirs is differed upon within the Sunni schools, with the majority opining that seven takbirs are pronounced in the first rak'a and five in the second. The Hanafi school holds that 3 takbirs are to be pronounced in each rak'a. After the prayer, a khutbah is delivered. However, unlike the Friday prayer, the khutbah is not an integral part of the Eid prayer.[64] The prescribed time of the Eid prayer is after that of Fajr and before that of Zuhr.[65]
Jam' and Qasr
Muslims may pray two obligatory prayers together at the prescribed time of one, a practice known as jam'. This is restricted to two pairs of salah: the afternoon prayers of Zuhr and Asr, and the night-time prayers of Maghrib and Isha. Within the schools of jurisprudence in Sunni Islam, there is a difference of opinion regarding the range of reasons that permit one to perform jam'. With the exception of the Hanafi school, the other schools of jurisprudence allow one to perform jam' when travelling or when incapable of performing the prayers separately. Hanbalis and members of the Salafi movement allow jam' for a wider range of reasons.[66][67] Some Salafis ascribing to the Ahl-i Hadith movement also permit jam' without reason while preferring that the prayers be performed separately.[68][69] The ShiaJa'fari school allows one to perform jam' without reason.[70] Exclusively when traveling, a Muslim may shorten the Zuhr, Asr, and Isha prayers, which normally consist of 4 rak'a, to two. This is known as qasr.[65]
Supererogatory salah
Muslims may perform supererogatory salah as an act of worship at any time except the times of prohibition. Such salah is called nafl.[71] Prayers performed by Muhammad consistently, or those that he recommended be performed but are not considered obligatory, are called sunnah prayers.
Sunan ar-Rawatib
Sunan ar-Rawatib (Arabic: السنن الرواتب, romanized: as-Sunan ar-Rawātib) refers to the regular voluntary (Sunnah) prayers that are associated with the five daily obligatory (Fard) prayers. These prayers are highly recommended and were regularly practiced by the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Performing them brings great reward and helps to make up for any deficiencies in the obligatory prayers. They are performed by Sunni Muslims during the prescribed times of the five daily obligatory prayers, either before performing the obligatory prayer or after it. Within the Sunni schools of jurisprudence, these amount to 10 or 12 rak'a, spread between the five prayers except Asr. The Sunan ar-Rawatib performed before the obligatory prayers are performed between the adhan and iqama of their associated salah, while those performed after the obligatory prayer may be performed up to the end of the prescribed time of the associated salah.[citation needed]
The Sunan ar-Rawatib are classified into two categories:[citation needed]
1. Sunnah Mu'akkadah (Emphasized Sunnah): These are the prayers that the Islamic prophet Muhammad regularly performed and strongly encouraged, making them highly recommended.
2. Sunnah Ghair Mu'akkadah (Non-emphasized Sunnah): These prayers were sometimes performed by the Islamic prophet Muhammad but not as consistently, and they are not as strongly emphasized.
According to most scholars, there are 12 units (rak'ahs) of Sunnah Mu'akkadah in total, associated with the five daily prayers. These are broken down as follows:
Performing the Sunan ar-Rawatib offers several benefits:
– It helps to compensate for any shortcomings or deficiencies in the obligatory prayers.
– It brings great reward and draws a person closer to Allah.
– Muhammad promised that whoever regularly performs these 12 rak'ahs will have a house built in Paradise (Sahih Muslim).
In conclusion, the Sunan ar-Rawatib are a valuable part of a Muslim’s daily worship routine, supplementing the obligatory prayers and enhancing one's connection to Allah.
Salah during the night
Witr salah (Arabic: صلاة الوتر) is a short prayer generally performed as the last prayer of the night. It consists of an odd number of rak'a, starting from one and going up to eleven, with slight differences between the different schools of jurisprudence.[72] Witr salah often includes the qunut.[73] Within Sunni schools of jurisprudence, the Hanafis view that the Witr salah is obligatory, while the other schools consider it a sunnah salah.
Within Sunni schools of jurisprudence, Tahajjud (Arabic: تَهَجُّد) refers to night-time prayers generally performed after midnight. The prayer includes any number of even rak'a, performed as individual prayers of two rak'a or four. Tahajjud is generally concluded with Witr salah.[72] Shia Muslims offer similar prayers, called Salawat al-Layl (Arabic: صَلَوَات اللَّيل). These are considered highly meritorious, consist of 11 rak'a: 8 nafl (performed as 4 prayers of 2 rak'a each) followed by 3 witr,[74] and can be offered in the same time as Tahajjud.[73]
Tarawih salah (Arabic: صلاة التراويح) is a sunnah prayer performed exclusively during Ramadan by Sunnis. It is performed immediately after the Isha prayer, and consists of 8 to 36 rak'a. Shi'ites hold that Tarawih is a bid'ah initiated by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar. Tarawih is also generally concluded with Witr salah.
Eclipse prayers
Following the sunnah of Muhammad during the solar eclipse that followed his son Ibrahim's death, Sunni Muslims perform the solar eclipse prayer (Arabic: صلاة الكسوف, romanized:Ṣalāt al-Kusuf), and the lunar eclipse prayer (Arabic: صلاة الخسوف, romanized:Ṣalāt al-Khusuf) during solar and lunar eclipses, respectively. These consist of 2 rak'a with 2 ruku in each rak'a instead of one. It is recommended to lengthen the recitation of the Quran, the bowing, and prostration in these prayers.[citation needed]
Istikhara salah
The word istikharah is derived from the root ḵ-y-r (خير) "well-being, goodness, choice, selection".[75] Salat al-Istikhaarah is a prayer offered when a Muslim needs guidance on a particular matter. To say this salah one should pray two rakats of non-obligatory salah to completion. After completion one should request Allah that which on is better.[65] The intention for the salah should be in one's heart to pray two rakats of salah followed by Istikhaarah. The salah can be offered at any of the times where salah is not forbidden.[76] Other prayers include the tahiyyat al-masjid, which Muslims are encouraged to offer these two rakat.[77]
Differences in practice
A Sunni Muslim (left) and Shia Muslim (right) performing the Friday prayer in Tehran. Some Sunnis perform salah with the hands clasped ("qabd"), while Shia offer salah with their hands at their sides ("sadl").
While most Muslims pray five times a day, some Muslims pray three times a day, believing the Qur'an only mentions three prayers.[78][56]Qur'anists are among those who pray three times a day.[79]
Most Muslims believe that Muhammad practiced, taught, and disseminated the salah in the whole community of Muslims and made it part of their life. The practice has, therefore, been concurrently and perpetually practiced by the community in each of the generations. The authority for the basic forms of the salah is neither the hadiths nor the Quran, but rather the consensus of Muslims.[80][81]
A turbah or mohr is a small piece of soil or clay, often a clay tablet, used during salah to symbolize earth.
This is not inconsistent with another fact that Muslims have shown diversity in their practice since the earliest days of practice, so the salah practiced by one Muslim may differ from another's in minor details. In some cases the hadith suggest some of this diversity of practice was known of and approved by Muhammad himself.[82]
Most differences arise because of different interpretations of the Islamic legal sources by the different schools of law (madhhabs) in Sunni Islam, and by different legal traditions within Shia Islam. In the case of ritual worship these differences are generally minor, and should rarely cause dispute.[83]
Common differences, which may vary between schools and gender, include the position of legs, feet, hands and fingers, where the eyes should focus, the minimum amount of recitation, the volume of recitation, and which of the principal elements of the prayer are indispensable, versus recommended or optional.[citation needed]
The following list consists of notable concepts that are derived from Islamic and associated cultural traditions, which are expressed as words in Arabic or Persian language. The main purpose of this list is to disambiguate multiple spellings, to make note of spellings no longer in use for these concepts, to define the concept in one or two lines, to make it easy for one to find and pin down specific concepts, and to provide a guide to unique concepts of Islam all in one place.
The Maghrib prayer is one of the five mandatory salah, and contains three cycles (rak'a). If counted from midnight, it is the fourth one.
In Islam, Friday prayer, or Congregational prayer is a community prayer service held once a week on Fridays. All Muslim men are expected to participate at a mosque with certain exceptions due to distance and situation. Women and children can also participate but do not fall under the same obligation that men do. The service consists of several parts including ritual washing, chants, recitation of scripture and prayer, and sermons.
The fajr prayer, alternatively transliterated as fadjr prayer, and also known as the subh prayer, is a salah offered in the early morning. Consisting of two rak'a (units), it is performed between the break of dawn and sunrise. It is one of two prayers mentioned by name in the Qur'an. Due to its timing, Islamic belief holds the fajr prayer to be of great importance. During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims begin fasting with the fajr prayer.
The Zuhr prayer is one of the five daily mandatory Islamic prayers (salah). It is observed after Fajr and before Asr prayers, between the zenith of noon and sunset, and contains 4 rak'a (units).
The Asr prayer is one of the mandatory five daily Islamic prayers.
Witr is an Islamic prayer (salat) that is performed at night after Isha or before fajr. Witr has an odd number of raka'at prayed in pairs, with the final raka'ah prayed separately.
Qiyām is an integral part of the Islamic salah. The prayer begins in the standing position and some prayers only require the qiyām, such as Salat al-Janazah.
A Rak'a is a single iteration of prescribed movements and supplications performed by Muslims as part of the prescribed obligatory prayer known as salah. Each of the five daily prayers observed by Muslims consists of a number of raka'at.
Tarawih are special Sunnah prayers involving reading long portions of the Quran, and performing up to 20 rakahs, which are performed only in the Islamic month of Ramadan. The entire Quran is recited in the Tarawih prayers at a mosque, typically at the rate of one Juz' per night.
Sujūd, or sajdah, also known as sijda,sejda or shejda is the act of low bowing or prostration to God facing the qiblah. It is usually done in standardized prayers (salah). The position involves kneeling and bowing till one touches the ground with 7 bones (points): the forehead & nose, two hands, two knees and two sets of toes. In accordance with the Sunnah of Muhammad, one's elbows should be far from one's body, unless it causes discomfort to other worshippers. Some scholars hold the position that this applies only to men, and that women are encouraged to tuck their elbows in out of modesty.
Ṣalāt al-Janāzah is the name of the special prayer that accompanies an Islamic funeral. It is performed in congregation to seek pardon for the deceased and all dead Muslims, and is a collective obligation upon all able-bodied Muslims; if some Muslims take the responsibility of conducting the prayer, then the obligation is fulfilled, but all Muslims will be accountable if this obligation is not fulfilled by anyone.
Eid prayers, also referred to as Salat al-Eid, are holy holiday prayers in the Islamic tradition. The literal translation of the word "Eid" in Arabic is "festival" or "feast" and is a time when Muslims congregate with family and the larger Muslim community to celebrate.
In Islam, a Nafl Prayer, or optional prayer, is a type of a non-obligatory prayer. They are believed to give extra reward to the person performing them, similar to sunnah prayers.
A Sunnah prayer is an optional or supererogatory salah that can be performed in addition to the five daily salah, which are compulsory for all Muslims. Sunnah prayer have different characteristics: some are done at the same time as the five daily compulsory prayers, some are done only at certain times, or only for specific occasions ; some have their own name and some are identified by how they are performed. The length of Sunnah prayer also varies.
Salat al-Istikhaara, which translates as Prayer of Seeking Counsel, is a prayer recited by Muslims who seek guidance from God when facing a decision in their life. The prayer, known as salah in Arabic is performed in two units of prayer or raka'ah followed by the supplication of Salat al-Istikhaara. It was revealed as a permissible substitute of belomancy, which is illegal in Islam, and was common in pre-Islamic Arabia.
Salat al-jama‘ah or prayer in congregation (jama'ah) is considered to have more social and spiritual benefit than praying by oneself. When praying in congregation, the people stand in straight parallel rows behind the chosen imam, facing qibla. The imam, who leads the congregation in salat, is usually chosen to be a scholar or the one who has the best knowledge of the Qur'an, preferably someone who has memorised it in its entirety. In the first row behind the Imam, if available, would be another hafiz to correct the Imam in case a mistake is made during the performance of the salat. The prayer is performed as normal, with the congregation following the actions and movements of the imam as he performs the salat.
The signs prayer is one of the Muslim prayers that is optional for Sunni Muslims, but mandatory for Shīʿa Muslims. When solar or lunar eclipses, earthquakes, thunder, or other natural phenomena occur, Muslims may have to pray Ṣalāt al-ʾĀyāt. In Twelver Shia Islam, al-Ayat Prayer consists of two Rakats, and there are five Ruku in each. It is for specific conditions and have been described in detail in resalah of marja's.
The Rain prayer is a sunnah salah for requesting and seeking rain water from God.
Rafʿ al-Yadayn is a Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad of raising the hands during the Rukū of Salah. This practice is widely found in the Hadiths and followed differently among Islamic schools of thought.
↑ Jafarli, Durdana. "The historical conditions for the emergence of the Quranist movement in Egypt in the 19th-20th centuries." МОВА І КУЛЬТУРА (2017): 91.
↑ Vgl. Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh: Quran: A Reformist Translation. 2007, S. 507.
↑ Jafarli, Durdana. "The historical conditions for the emergence of the Quranist movement in Egypt in the 19th-20th centuries." МОВА І КУЛЬТУРА (2017): 91.
↑ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. "Fard al-Ayn". oxfordislamicstudies. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010.
↑ Akhtar Rizvi, Sayyid Saeed (1989). Elements of Islamic Studies. Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania.
↑ Margoliouth, G. (2003). "Sabbath (Muhammadan)". In Hastings, James (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol.20. Selbie, John A., contrib. Kessinger Publishing. pp.893–894. ISBN978-0-7661-3698-4.
↑ Jafarli, Durdana. "The historical conditions for the emergence of the Quranist movement in Egypt in the 19th–20th centuries." МОВА І КУЛЬТУРА (2017): 91.
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