The veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church encompasses various devotions which include prayer, pious acts, visual arts, poetry, and music devoted to her.[1][2] Popes have encouraged it, while also taking steps to reform some manifestations of it.[note 1] The Holy See has insisted on the importance of distinguishing "true from false devotion, and authentic doctrine from its deformations by excess or defect".[3] There are significantly more titles, feasts, and venerative Marian practices among Roman Catholics than in other Western Christian traditions.[4] The term hyperdulia indicates the special veneration due to Mary, greater than the ordinary dulia for other saints, but utterly unlike the latria due only to God.
Further pious veneration of Mary encouraged by Popes are exhibited in the canonical coronations granted to popular Marian images venerated in a particular locality all over the world, while Marian movements and societies with millions of members have arisen from belief in events such as Guadalupe, Lourdes, Fátima, Akita, and other reasons.[8]
From Christ to Mary in the Roman Catholic tradition
In Roman Catholic teachings, the veneration of Mary is a natural consequence of Christology: Jesus and Mary are son and mother, redeemer and redeemed.[9] This sentiment was expressed by Pope John Paul II in his encyclical Redemptoris mater: "At the centre of this mystery, in the midst of this wonderment of faith, stands Mary. As the loving Mother of the Redeemer, she was the first to experience it: 'To the wonderment of nature you bore your Creator'!"[5]
In the Roman Catholic tradition Mariology is seen as Christology developed to its full potential.[10] Mary is seen as contributing to a fuller understanding of the life of Jesus. In this view, a Christology without Mary is not based on the total revelation of the Bible. Traces of this parallel interpretation go back to the early days of Christianity and numerous saints have since focused on it.[9]
The development of this approach continued into the 20th century. In his 1946 publication Compendium Mariologiae, MariologistGabriel Roschini explained that Mary not only participated in the birth of the physical Jesus, but, with conception, she entered with him into a spiritual union. The divine salvation plan, being not only material, includes a permanent spiritual unity with Christ.[11][12][13] Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) wrote: "It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth about man' that John Paul II proposed as a program to all of Christianity," in order to ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary".[14]
From veneration to theology
It is possible that the practice of invoking the aid of the Mother of Christ had become more familiar to the faithful some time before any expression of it in the writings of the Early Church Fathers.[15] Christians' love for Mary intuited, frequently in anticipation, certain aspects of the mystery of the Blessed Virgin, calling the attention of theologians and pastors to them.[16] Venerative and devotional practices have often preceded formal theological declarations by the Magisterium.[17]
The veneration of the Blessed Virgin takes place in various ways. Marian prayers and hymns usually begin with veneration (honor) of her, followed by petitions.[18] The number of Marian titles continued to grow as of the 3rd century, and many titles existed by the 5th century, growing especially during the Middle Ages.[19]
Theological basis for the veneration of Mary
Veneration for Mary is based on the reference in the Gospel of Luke to Mary as the selected handmaid of the Lord who is greeted and praised by both Elizabeth and the angel Gabriel. God's work is further illuminated in the Marian dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church such as the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption, and are, in the Roman Catholic view, part of the apostolic tradition and divine revelation.[20][21] Catholics distinguish veneration from worship.
One of the components of the Catholic veneration of Mary is the focus on her participation in the processes of salvation and redemption.[22] This has been explored by such writers as Edward Schillebeeckx and Adrienne von Speyr.[23][24]
John's Gospel records her presence at the beginning and end of Jesus' public life. Particularly significant is Mary's presence at the Cross, when she received from her dying Son the charge to be mother to the beloved disciple. Catholics interpret that through the disciple, Christ is giving care of Mary to all Christians.[16] The Acts of the Apostles expressly numbers the Mother of Jesus among the women of the first community awaiting Pentecost. John Eudes wrote that: "The Virgin Mary began to cooperate in the plan of salvation, from the moment she gave her consent to the Incarnation of the Son of God".[25]
Lumen gentium, the 1964 Dogmatic Constitution of the Church recognized, "all the salvific influence of the Blessed Virgin on men originates, not from some inner necessity, but from the divine pleasure. It flows forth from the superabundance of the merits of Christ, rests on His mediation, depends entirely on it and draws all its power from it."[26] In a singular way she cooperated by her obedience, faith, hope, and burning charity in the work of the Savior in giving back supernatural life to souls. "Wherefore she is our mother in the order of grace."[27]
One of the first scholars to offer theological foundations on the subject of the Immaculate Conception was the Franciscan Duns Scotus who developed the concept that Mary was preserved from sin by the redemptive virtue of Jesus.[28][29][30] Devotions to and the veneration of the Virgin Mary continued to spread, as she came to be seen as the helpful mother of Christians, and by the 15th century these practices had oriented many Catholic devotions.[31]
Veronica Giuliani expressed how Mary's suffering in Calvary united her heart with that of Jesus as she suffered each torment along with him.[32] The joint devotion to the hearts was formalized by Jean Eudes who organized the scriptural and theological foundations and developed its liturgical themes.[33] The venerative aspects of the united nature of the two hearts continued through the centuries and in 1985 Pope John Paul II coined the term Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary, and in 1986 addressed the international conference on that topic held at Fátima, Portugal.[34][35][36]
By the 18th century, the continued growth of Marian veneration had emphasized the role of the Virgin Mary in salvation. The Catholic focus on the role of Mary in salvation and redemption continued with Pope John Paul II's 1987 encyclical Redemptoris mater.[5]
Mary as the masterwork of God
The Catechism of the Catholic Church, in paragraphs 721–726, claims that Mary is the first dwelling-place of God in salvation history. As such, she is the masterwork of God and the start of God bringing mankind into communion with Jesus. In Mary's womb, Jesus is the manifestation of God's wonders, the fulfillment of God's plan of loving goodness, and the definitive theophany. As such, Mary is typified by the Burning Bush in the Book of Exodus and by wisdom in the Book of Proverbs.[37]
Roman Catholic views of the Virgin Mary as refuge and advocate of sinners, protector from dangers and powerful intercessor with her Son, Jesus are expressed in prayers, artistic depictions, theology, and popular and devotional writings, as well as in the use of religious articles and images.[39][40] The earliest known prayer to Mary, the Sub tuum praesidium, ("Under your protection") dates from about the 3rd century.[41]
The artistic depictions of the Virgin of Mercy portray the role of Mary as the protector of Christians, as she shelters them under her mantle. The Virgin of Mercy depictions sometimes include arrows raining from above, with the Virgin's cloak protecting the people.[42]
Catholics have continued to seek the protection of Mary as the Mother of Sorrows and relied on her intercession as the Queen of Heaven since the Middle Ages.[43] Building on that sentiment, popes have entrusted specific causes to the protection of the Virgin Mary. Pope Benedict XV entrusted the protection of the world through the intercession of Mary Queen of Peace during the First World War.[44]
The Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy, also known as the order of Our Lady of Ransom or Order of Captives began in the 13th century in the Kingdom of Aragon (Spain) to ransom captive Christians (slaves) held in Muslim hands. The order now focuses on the role of the Virgin Mary as the protector of captives and prisoners.[45]
The depictions of Our Lady of Navigators arose from the prayers and devotions of Portuguese navigators, who saw the Virgin Mary as their protector during storms and other hazards. Prayers to Our Lady of Navigators are well known in South America, specially Brazil, where its February 2 feast is an official holiday.[46][47]The Virgin of the Navigators, depicting ships under her mantle, is the earliest known painting whose subject is the discovery of the Americas.[48][49]
The prayer, the Memorare begins: "Remember O most gracious Virgin Mary, that never was it known that anyone who fled to Thy protection, implored Thy help or sought Thy intercession, was left unaided."[53]
Louis de Montfort taught that God appointed Mary as "the dispenser of grace", and to receive grace from God, one can receive it through the hands of the Blessed Virgin, as a child receives from a mother.[25]Lumen gentium states: "This, however, is to be so understood that it neither takes away from nor adds anything to the dignity and efficaciousness of Christ the one Mediator."[26]
Pope Francis has said that her "entire life was contained in her song of praise" of the greatness of the Lord. Francis goes on to confide that at Marian shrines he likes to
spend time looking at the Blessed Mother and letting her look at me. I pray for a childlike trust, the trust of the poor and simple who know that their mother is there, and that they have a place in her heart. And in looking at her, to hear once more, like the Indian Juan Diego: "My youngest son, what is the matter? Do not let it disturb your heart. Am I not here, I who have the honour to be your mother?"[54]
Development of Marian doctrines
The theological development of devotion to Mary begins with Justin Martyr (100–165) who articulated Mary's role in salvation history as the Second Eve.[55] This was followed up by Irenæus, whom Herbert Thurston calls "the first theologian of the Virgin Mother".[15]
In the first three centuries the emphasis was on the veneration of martyrs, as a continuation of the yearly celebrations of their death, e.g. as noted in the early Christian text on the Martyrdom of Polycarp.[59]
In the Eastern traditions Mariology developed through liturgical veneration within the framework of the feasts relative to the Incarnation.[60] In the early part of the 3rd century, Hippolytus of Rome recorded the first liturgical reference to the Virgin Mary, as part of the ordination rite of a bishop.[61] Marian feasts appeared in the 4th century, and the feast of the "Memory of Mary, Mother of God" was celebrated on August 15 in Jerusalem by the year 350.[61][62]
The Roman Catholic liturgy is one of the most important elements of Marian devotions. Many Marian feasts are superior to the feast days of the other saints. The liturgical texts of the Marian feast days all link Mary to Jesus Christ.
Mary, as the mother of Jesus, is documented in Roman catacombs: paintings from the first half of the 2nd century show her holding the Christ Child.[15] Excavations in the crypt of St Peter's Basilica uncovered a very early fresco of Mary together with Saint Peter.[64] The Roman Priscilla catacombs depict the oldest Marian paintings from the middle of the 2nd century:[65] Mary is shown with Jesus on her lap; they are next to a man in a tunic, his left hand holding a book and his right hand pointing to a star over his head, the latter being an Old Testament symbol of messiahs and/or the Messiah. These catacombs also have a depiction of the Annunciation.[63] The Edict of Milan (AD 313) allowed Christians to worship openly. This new freedom also permitted literary development of the veneration of Mary, Hippolytus of Rome being an early example.[61][66]Ambrose, who lived in Rome before going to Milan as its bishop, venerated Mary as an example of Christian life and is credited with starting a Marian cult of virginity in the 4th century.[67]
In the early Middle Ages, veneration of Mary was particularly expressed in monasteries, especially those of the Benedictines. Chants such as Ave Maris Stella and the Salve Regina emerged and became staples of monastic plainsong.[70] In the 8th century, The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary developed from the monks' practice of praying the Canonical hours. The Carolingians encouraged Marian piety by the celebration of Marian feast days and the dedication of churches in her honor.[55] Devotional practices grew in number.
The 12th and 13th centuries saw an extraordinary growth of the cult of the Virgin in Western Europe, inspired in part by the writings of theologians such as Bernard of Clairvaux. The movement found its grandest expression in the French cathedrals, often dedicated to "Our Lady", such as Notre-Dame de Paris and Notre-Dame de Bayeux among others.[71]Walsingham and other places of Marian pilgrimage developed large popular followings. At the height of the pilgrimage movement in the 11th and 12th centuries, hundreds of people were traveling almost constantly from one Marian shrine to the next.[72]
By the 14th century, Mary had become greatly popular as a compassionate intercessor and protector of humanity, and during the great plagues (such as the Black Death) her help was sought against the just judgment of God.[73] The Renaissance witnessed a dramatic growth in venerative Marian art.[74]
By the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation had introduced a tide against Marian venerations in Europe.[75] However, at the same time new Marian devotions were starting in Latin America based on Juan Diego's 1531 reported vision of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The ensuing Marian pilgrimages have continued to date and the Marian Basilica on Tepeyac Hill remains the most visited Catholic shrine in the world.[76] In the 17th and 18th centuries writings by the saints, coupled with papal encouragements, increased the growth of Marian devotions, and gave rise to the definition and declaration of new Marian doctrines.[77]
Marian culture continues to develop within the Catholic Church. In 1974, after four years of preparation, Pope Paul VI issued the Apostolic Letter Marialis Cultus. In this document, (which was subtitled For the Right Ordering and Development of Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary) Paul VI not only discussed the history of Marian devotions but also overviewed their rationale and provided suggestions for their future direction, their theological and pastoral value. He called for "preventing any tendency (as has happened at times in certain forms of popular piety) to separate devotion to the Blessed Virgin from its necessary point of reference-Christ"(MC, 4).[78][79] This followed the turn of events at the Second Vatican Council, which followed a century of increased emphasis on devotion to Mary.[80] The Council document Sacrosanctum Concilium, sought to give guidance on the place of devotions in Christian piety:[81] It decreed that "Devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonize with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them" (SC, 13).
Roman Catholic devotions have relied on the writings of numerous saints throughout history who have attested to the central role of Mary in God's plan of salvation.[82]
Early saints included Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century who was perhaps the earliest of the Church Fathers to write systematically about the Virgin Mary, and he set out a forthright account of her role in the economy of salvation.[83][84]Ambrose of Milan (339–397) based the veneration of Mary not only on her virginity but also on her extraordinary courage.[85][86]
In the Middle Ages, Bernhard of Clairvaux highlighted her virginity and humility as the basis for her veneration.[87][88] A particularly significant contribution to Mariology came from John Duns Scotus who in the 13th century defended the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.[89] Scotus identified the key theological foundations which led to the declaration of the dogma of Immaculate Conception centuries later.[90]
In his book The Glories of Mary, Alphonsus Liguori explained how God gave Mary to mankind as the "Gate of Heaven", quoting Bonaventure, "No one can enter Heaven unless by Mary, as though through a door."[93]Louis de Montfort's book True Devotion to Mary synthesized many of the writings of earlier saints. His approach of "total consecration to Jesus Christ through Mary" had a strong impact on Marian devotion both in popular piety and in the spirituality of religious institutes.
The earliest Christian feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the cycle of feasts that celebrated the Nativity of Jesus. By the 7th century a feast dedicated to Mary was celebrated just before Christmas in the churches of Milan and Ravenna in Italy.[94] Over time, the number of feasts (and the associated titles of Mary) and the venerative practices that accompany them increased and today the Catholic Church has more Marian feasts, titles, and venerative practices than any other Christian body.[4] Marian feasts have continued to be developed in the Catholic Church, e.g. the feast of the Queenship of Mary was declared in the 1954 in the papal encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam by pope Pius XII.[95][96]
Catherine of Siena, adopted the custom of dedicating Saturday to Mary. The month of October was established as the "month of the Rosary" by Pope Leo XIII, who recommended daily Rosary devotions in October.[97][98]
During the month of May, May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary take place in many Catholic regions. These may include the singing of Marian anthems, crowning of statues of Mary with floral wreaths, readings from scriptures, a sermon, and or presentation by local choirs.[99][100] The month is also associated with reflection on the Virgin Mary's role as the ideal disciple who sheds light on the Christian way of life, and theologian Karl Rahner stated: "When we are involved in our May Devotions, we are engaged in a Christian understanding of the human situation."[101]
The Roman Catholic Church celebrates three Marian solemnities which are also holy days of obligation in many countries during the liturgical year[102] (in liturgical order):
The Blessed Virgin Mary depicted as mother, holding the Child Jesus. Archdiocesan Museum, Wrocław.
A large number of titles to honor Mary or ask for her intercession are used by Roman Catholics.[103] While Mater Dei (i.e. "Mother of God" as confirmed by the First Council of Ephesus, 431) is common in Latin, a large number of other titles have been used by Roman Catholics – far more than any other Christians.[4][104][105]
Titles used to refer to the Virgin Mary throughout history, at times reflect the changing attitudes towards her. Domina (lady), Regina (queen) and Stella Maris (star of the sea) are some of the early titles of Mary, of which Regina is the earliest. Domina and Sella Maris are found in Jerome who perhaps originated the etymology of Mary as Stella Maris in the 5th century. While the early emphasis in Stella Maris was on Mary as the Star that bore Christ, by the 9th century, the attention had focused on Mary herself, as indicated in the hymn Ave Maris Stella. By the 11th century, Mary herself had emerged as the star that acted as a guiding light.[106] By the 13th century, as Mariology was growing, Anthony of Padua had composed Mary Our Queen.[107] Titles continue to be interpreted, e.g. Queen of Heaven was further elaborated in 1954 in the papal encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam by pope Pius XII.[95]
Among the most prominent Roman Catholic Marian titles are:[108]
While the date of the composition of Ave Regina caelorum is uncertain, conjecture that it antedates the fourth century seems to be without any warrant of external or internal evidence. It is found in the St. Alban's Book of the twelfth century.[113] The Regina Caeli has been traced back to the twelfth century.[114]
It is difficult to trace the beginning of non-Gregorian Marian liturgical music.[115] In 1277 Pope Nicholas III prescribed rules for liturgy in Roman churches.[116][117] In the Graduale Romanum, Kyriale IX and X are both for Marian feasts. Over the centuries, Marian master pieces have continued to appear, e.g. Mozart's Coronation Mass.[118] The list of compositions by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina includes numerous Marian masses: Salve Regina, Alma Redemptoris, Assumpta est Maria, Regina caeli, de beata Virgine, Ave Regina caelorum, Descendit Angelus Domini, and O Virgo simul et Mater.[119]Joseph Haydn wrote several Marian compositions including two famous Marian Masses.[120]
Author Emily Shapcote lists 150 Marian poems and hymns in her book Mary the Perfect Woman.[122] Such prayers and poems go as far back as the 3rd century, but enjoyed a rapid growth during the 11th and 12th centuries. Some of the best poetry written in honor of the Blessed virgin comes from this period of the Middle Ages.[18]
"Because of Mary's singular cooperation with the action of the Holy Spirit, the Church loves to pray in communion with the Virgin Mary, to magnify with her the great things the Lord has done for her, and to entrust supplications and praises to her.[123]
The earliest known Marian prayer is the Sub tuum praesidium, or Beneath Thy Protection, a text for which was rediscovered in 1917 on a papyrus in Egypt dated often to c.250, but by others to the 5–6th century.[124][125] The papyrus contains the prayer in Greek and is the earliest known reference to the title Theotokos (confirmed by the Council of Ephesus in 431):[126]
Beneath your compassion, We take refuge, O Mother of God: do not despise our petitions in time of trouble: but rescue us from dangers, only pure, only blessed one.
The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary probably originated as a monastic devotion around the middle of the eighth century.[127] It is a variation of the Common of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the Liturgy of the Hours (Divine Office). It may have originally been put together to be prayed in connection with the Votive Masses of Our Lady on Saturday, which were written by Alcuin, the liturgical master of Charlemagne's court.[128] The Little Office did not come into general use before the tenth century.
During the 11th century, as the number of monasteries grew, so did Marian prayers. There is little or no trace of the Hail Mary as an accepted devotional formula before about 1050. All the evidence suggests that it took its rise from certain versicles and responsories occurring in the Little Office or Cursus of the Blessed Virgin which just at that time was coming into favour among the monastic orders. Two Anglo-Saxon manuscripts at the British Museum, one of which may be as old as the year 1030, show that the words "Ave Maria" etc. and "benedicta tu in mulieribus et benedictus fructus ventris tui" occurred in almost every part of the Cursus, and though it is not clear that these clauses were at first joined together so as to make one prayer, there is conclusive evidence that this had come to pass only a very little later.[129] As regards the addition of the word "Jesus," it is commonly said that this was due to the initiative of Pope Urban IV (1261) although the evidence does not seem sufficiently clear to warrant positive statement on the point.[15] This was the prayer as known to Thomas Aquinas when he gave a Lenten sermon on the "Salutation of the Blessed Virgin" in 1273.[130] By the fourteenth century it was not uncommon to conclude with an appeal for sinners and especially for help at the hour of death. Official recognition of the Ave Maria in its complete form was finally given in the Roman Breviary of 1568.[15]
Three Hail Marys is a traditional Roman Catholic devotional practice of reciting three Hail Marys as a petition for purity and other virtues. The practice of saying three Hail Marys in the evening somewhere about sunset had become general throughout Europe in the first half of the fourteenth century and it was recommended by Pope John XXII in 1318. The practice was observed by Franciscans and eventually developed into the Angelus prayer.[131]
The Angelus is a prayer commemorating the Incarnation. It originated with the 11th-century monastic custom of reciting three Hail Marys during the evening, or Compline bell. It was traditionally recited in Roman Catholic churches, convents, and monasteries three times daily: 6:00 am, noon, and 6:00 pm and is usually accompanied by the ringing of the Angelus bell, which is a call to prayer.[132]
In the 12th century Bernard of Clairvaux gave sermons (De duodecim stellis), from which an extract has been taken by the Roman Catholic Church and used in the Offices of the Compassion and of the Seven Dolours. Saint Bernard wrote: "Take away Mary, this star of the sea, the sea truly great and wide: what is left but enveloping darkness and the shadow of death and the densest blackness?"[111] There are pious meditations on the Ave Maria and the Salve Regina, usually attributed either to St. Anselm of Lucca (d. 1080) or St. Bernard; and also in the large book "De laudibus B. Mariae Virginis" (Douai, 1625) by Richard de Saint-Laurent.
The mostly anonymous Middle English Lyrics of the Later Middle Ages show passionate forms of personal worship, known as affective devotion. The lyrics, reflecting the theology, depict Mary as not just the woman but also the ideal that all humanity should strive for.
Mary's humility is one of the qualities highlighted by in the Middle English Lyrics. The lyric "Gabriel, from hevenë king/ sent to the maidë swetë" is an excellent example of Mary's humility. The lyric's author builds upon this theme throughout the lyric. The second stanza "Mildëliche him gan answere/ The midlë maiden thannë." The theme of humility is fully developed in the third stanza;
When the maiden understood/ And th'angles wordës herdë,/ Mildëliche with mildë mod/ To th'angel she answerdë:/ 'Our Lordës thew-maiden i-wis/ Ich am, that her-aboven is./ Anentës me/ Fulforthëd be/ Thy, sawë;/ That Ich, sithe His wil is,/ Maiden, withouten lawë,/ Of moder have the blis. [133]
The term "devotions" is commonly understood to refer to those external practices of piety by which the faith of an individual finds expression.[134] Such prayers or acts may be accompanied by specific requests for Mary's intercession with God.[135][136] Devotion to the Virgin Mary does not, however, amount to worship – which is reserved for God.
A wide range of Marian devotions are followed by Catholics ranging from simple Rosary recitations to formalized Novenas to activities which do not involve any prayers, such the wearing of scapulars or maintaining a Mary garden.[137] Two well known Marian devotions are the Rosary recitation and the wearing of the Brown Scapular. Following their joint growth in the 18th and 19th centuries, by the early 20th century the Rosary and the devotional Scapular had gained such a strong following among Catholics worldwide that the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914 stated: "Like the Rosary, the Brown Scapular has become the badge of the devout Catholic."[138] In his encyclical Rosarium Virginis MariaePope John Paul II emphasized the importance of the Rosary. The Mariological basis of the Scapular devotion is effectively the same as Marian consecration, as discussed in the dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium of the Second Vatican Council, namely the role of the Virgin Mary as "the mother to us in the order of grace" which allows her to intercede for "the gift of eternal salvation".[139] The same Council decree clarified that the many ways in which Mary can encourage and assist us "neither takes away from nor adds anything to the dignity and efficaciousness of Christ the one Mediator."[140]
Roman Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary for insults that she suffers. The Raccolta Roman Catholic prayer book (approved by a Decree of 1854, and published by the Holy See in 1898) includes a number of such prayers. These prayers do not involve a petition for a living or deceased beneficiary, but aim to repair the sins of others against the Virgin Mary.[141][142][143]
For centuries, Marian devotions among Roman Catholics have included many examples of personal or collective acts of consecration and entrustment to the Virgin Mary; the Latin terms oblatio, servitus, commendatio, and dedicatio were used in this context.[144]
The Catholic Church makes it clear that "the faithful should be carefully instructed about the practice of consecration to the Blessed Virgin Mary ... it is, in reality, only analogously a 'consecration to God,' and should be expressed in a correct liturgical manner: to the Father, through Christ in the Holy Spirit, imploring the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to whom we entrust ourselves completely, so as to keep our baptismal commitments and live as her children."[144]
Individuals declaring their "entrustment" to Mary seek her intercession before God through her son Jesus Christ, for she herself has no divine power.[145][146] In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.[147]
In modern times, Pope John Paul II clarified consecration to Mary in his 1987 encyclical, Redemptoris mater, in which he stated, "Mary's motherhood ... is a gift which Christ himself makes personally to every individual."[5]
In Marpingen, Germany, Our Lady is said to have appeared several times to three groups of visionaries: in 1876–1877, then in 1934–1936, and finally in 1999. The investigation conducted by the Bishop of Trier after the last apparition concluded in 2005 that "the events in Marpingen cannot be confirmed as being of supernatural origin".
The official position of the Holy See is that while the Holy Office has approved a few apparitions of the Virgin Mary, Roman Catholics at large are not required to believe them. However, many Catholics express belief in Marian apparitions.[152] This has included popes, e.g. four popes, i.e. Pope Pius XII, Pope John XXIII, Pope Paul VI, Pope John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis have supported the Our Lady of Fátima apparitions as supernatural. Pope John Paul II was particularly attached to Fátima and credited the Blessed Virgin of Fátima with saving his life after he was shot in Rome on the Feast Day of Our Lady of Fátima in May 1981. He donated the bullet that wounded him on that day to the Roman Catholic sanctuary at Fátima, Portugal.[149][153][154]
As a historical pattern, Vatican approval seems to have followed general acceptance of a vision by well over a century in most cases. According to Salvatore M. Perrella of the Mariunum Pontifical Institute in Rome, of the 295 reported apparitions studied by the Holy See through the centuries only 12 have been approved, the latest being in May 2008.[6][7][155][156]
The tradition of honoring Mary by venerating images of her goes back to 3rd-century Christianity.[157] Following the period of iconoclasm, the position of the church with respect to the veneration of images was formalized at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. A summary of the doctrine is included in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church.
The Christian veneration of images is not contrary to the first commandment which proscribes idols. Indeed, "the honour rendered to an image passes to its prototype," and "whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it." The honour paid to sacred images is a "respectful veneration," not the adoration due to God alone: Religious worship is not directed to images in themselves, considered as mere things, but under their distinctive aspect as images leading us on to God Incarnate. The movement toward the image does not terminate in it as image, but tends towards that whose image it is.[158]
Marian art enjoys a significant level of diversity, e.g. with distinct styles of statues of the Virgin Mary present on different continents (as depicted in the galleries in Roman Catholic Marian art). These depictions are not restricted to European art, and also appear in South American paintings.[163] The South American tradition of Marian veneration through art dates back to the 16th century, with the Virgin of Copacabana gaining fame in 1582.[164]
In the Roman Catholic Church a shrine is a church or sacred place which receives many faithful pilgrims for a specific pious reason. The local ordinary must approve the shrine.[177]
Marian shrines account for major veneration centers and pilgrimage sites for Roman Catholics. According to Bishop Francesco Giogia, at the end of the 20th century, the most visited Catholic shrine in the world was that of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico City. In third place was Our Lady of Aparecida in Brazil, with the non-Marian shrine of San Giovanni Rotondo in second place.[76] The visual effect of Marian pilgrimages can be dramatic, e.g. on May 13 and October 13 of each year close to one million Catholic pilgrims walk the country road that leads to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima.[178] Around 2 million pilgrims journey up Tepeyac hill on December 12 each year to visit the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe.[179] While in 1968 Aparecida had about four million pilgrims,[180] the number has since reached eight million pilgrims per year.[181]
An example of the cultural adaptation of perspective includes the view of the Virgin Mary as a mother with humility (rather than a heavenly queen) as the Franciscans began to preach in China, and its similarity to the local Chinese motherly and merciful figure of Kuanyin, which was much admired in south China.[187][188][189][190][191][192] Another example is the Juan Diego's account of the appearance of the Virgin of Guadalupe in 1531 as a tanned Aztec princess who spoke in his local Nahuatl language. The clothing of the Virgin of Guadalupe image has been identified[by whom?] as that of an Aztec princess.[193][194][195][196][197]
Other views, such as the Virgin Mary as a "miracle worker" have existed for centuries and are still held by many Catholics as of 2015[update].[198][199][200] Instances include the Black Madonna of Częstochowa which continues to be venerated today as the Patron of Poland, and Our Lady of Lourdes – Lourdes receives millions of pilgrims per year. However, the Vatican has generally been reluctant to approve of modern miracles, unless they have been subject to extensive analysis and scrutiny.[201][202][203][204][205]
↑ For example, on March 12, 1969, Pope Paul VI reduced and rearranged the number of Marian feast days in Sanctitas clarior. Several of his predecessors did similarly.
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Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen, many of them mentioned in the Litany of Loreto. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of God. The Church of the East historically regarded her as Christotokos, a term still used in Assyrian Church of the East liturgy. Other Protestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status. She has the highest position in Islam among all women and is mentioned numerous times in the Quran, including in a chapter named after her. She is also revered in the Baháʼí Faith and the Druze Faith.
Catholic Mariology is the systematic study of the person of Mary, mother of Jesus, and of her place in the Economy of Salvation in Catholic theology. According to the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception taught by the Catholic Church, Mary was conceived and born without sin, hence she is seen as having a singular dignity above the saints, receiving a higher level of veneration than all angelic spirits and blessed souls in heaven. Catholic Mariology thus studies not only her life but also the veneration of her in daily life, prayer, hymns, art, music, and architecture in modern and ancient Christianity throughout the ages.
The Immaculate Heart of Mary is a Catholic devotion which refers to the view of the interior life of Mary, her joys and sorrows, her virtues and hidden perfections, and, above all, her virginal love for God the Father, her maternal love for her son Jesus Christ, and her motherly and compassionate love for all mankind. Traditionally, the Immaculate Heart is depicted pierced with seven swords or wounds, in homage to the seven dolors of Mary and roses, usually red or white, wrapped around the heart.
Marian devotions are external pious practices directed to the person of Mary, mother of Jesus, by members of certain Christian traditions. They are performed in Catholicism, High Church Lutheranism, Anglo-Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, but generally rejected in other Christian denominations.
Catholic devotions are particular customs, rituals, and practices of worship of God or honour of the saints which are in addition to the liturgy of the Catholic Church. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops describes devotions as "expressions of love and fidelity that arise from the intersection of one's own faith, culture and the Gospel of Jesus Christ". Devotions are not considered part of liturgical worship, even if they are performed in a church or led by a priest, but rather they are paraliturgical. The Congregation for Divine Worship at the Vatican publishes a Directory on Popular Piety and the Liturgy.
Anglican Marian theology is the summation of the doctrines and beliefs of Anglicanism concerning Mary, mother of Jesus. As Anglicans believe that Jesus was both human and God the Son, the second Person of the Trinity, within the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglican movement, Mary is accorded honour as the theotokos, a Koiné Greek term that means "God-bearer" or "one who gives birth to God".
Mary, the mother of Jesus in Christianity, is known by many different titles, epithets, invocations, and several names associated with places.
Mariology is the Christian theological study of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Mariology seeks to relate doctrine or dogma about Mary to other doctrines of the faith, such as those concerning Jesus and notions about redemption, intercession and grace. Christian Mariology aims to place the role of the historic Mary in the context of scripture, tradition and the teachings of the Church on Mary. In terms of social history, Mariology may be broadly defined as the study of devotion to and thinking about Mary throughout the history of Christianity.
May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary refer to special Marian devotions held in the Catholic Church during the month of May honoring Mary, mother of God, as "the Queen of May". These services may take place inside or outside. A "May Crowning" is a traditional Roman Catholic ritual that occurs in the month of May.
Marian feast days in the liturgical year are celebrated in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The number of Marian feasts celebrated, their names can vary among Christian denominations.
Marialis Cultus is the title of a Mariological apostolic exhortation by Pope Paul VI issued on February 2, 1974. It is subtitled: "For the Right Ordering and Development of Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary", and discusses Marian devotions, clarifying the way in which the Roman Catholic Church celebrates and commemorates Mary, the mother of Jesus. The exhortation sought to integrate devotion to Mary into the pastoral catechetical process, especially in liturgical catechesis, in a manner harmonious with the reforms of Vatican II. Mary must always be understood in relation to Jesus.
The history of Catholic Mariology traces theological developments and views regarding Mary from the early Church to the 21st century. Mariology is a mainly Catholic ecclesiological study within theology, which centers on the relation of Mary, the Mother of God, and the Church. Theologically, it not only deals with her life but with her veneration in life and prayer, in art, music, and architecture, from ancient Christianity to modern times.
Throughout history, Catholic Mariology has been influenced by a number of saints who have attested to the central role of Mary in God's plan of salvation. The analysis of Early Church Fathers continues to be reflected in modern encyclicals. Irenaeus vigorously defended the title of "Theotokos" or Mother of God. The views of Anthony of Padua, Robert Bellarmine and others supported the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, which was declared a dogma in 1850.
The Mariology of the popes is the theological study of the influence that the popes have had on the development, formulation and transformation of the Roman Catholic Church's doctrines and devotions relating to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
Catholic Marian churches are religious buildings dedicated to the veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary. These churches were built throughout the history of the Catholic Church, and today they can be found on every continent including Antarctica. The history of Marian church architecture tells the unfolding story of the development of Catholic Mariology.
Mary has been one of the major subjects of Western art for centuries. There is an enormous quantity of Marian art in the Catholic Church, covering both devotional subjects such as the Virgin and Child and a range of narrative subjects from the Life of the Virgin, often arranged in cycles. Most medieval painters, and from the Reformation to about 1800 most from Catholic countries, have produced works, including old masters such as Michelangelo and Botticelli.
Mariological papal documents have been a major force that has shaped Roman Catholic Mariology over the centuries. Mariology is developed by theologians on the basis not only of Scripture and Tradition but also of the sensus fidei of the faithful as a whole, "from the bishops to the last of the faithful", and papal documents have recorded those developments, defining Marian dogmas, spreading doctrines and encouraging devotions within the Catholic Church.
The exact origins of both the rosary and scapular are subject to debate among scholars. Pious tradition maintains that both the rosary and the brown Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel were given by the Virgin Mary to Dominic and Simon Stock respectively during the 13th century. Historical records document their growth during the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe. By the early 20th century, they had gained such a strong following among Catholics worldwide that Josef Hilgers, writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, stated: "Like the Rosary, the Brown scapular has become the badge of the devout Catholic."
The "Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary" is a phrase coined by Pope John Paul II during his Angelus Address of September 15, 1985. Discussing devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Immaculate Heart of Mary, he said that "...though distinct, they are interrelated by reason of the enduring relation of love that exists between the Son and his Mother." Subsequently, several symposia were held to examine the roots and implications of devotion to the Sacred Heart. Since there had already been much research on Devotion to the Sacred Heart, the conferences tended to focus on the devotion to the Immaculate Heart of Mary from the perspective of Sacred Scripture and Tradition.
The consecration and entrustment to the Virgin Mary is a personal or collective act of Marian devotion among Catholics, with the Latin terms oblatio, servitus, commendatio and dedicatio being used in this context. Consecration is an act by which a person is dedicated to a sacred service, or an act which separates an object, location or region from a common and profane mode to one for sacred use. The Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments clarifies that in this context, "It should be recalled, however, that the term "consecration" is used here in a broad and non-technical sense: the expression is use of 'consecrating children to Our Lady', by which is intended placing children under her protection and asking her maternal blessing for them".
1 2 Hogan, Robert; Kulkarni, Sumithra (February 7, 2012) [1995]. "Pastoral Marian Organizations in the United States". International Marian Research Institute. The Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
1 2 Schmaus, Michael (2004) [1975]. "Mariology". In Rahner, Karl (ed.). Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi. Mumbai: St Pauls. pp.893–905. ISBN9780860120063. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
↑ Perry, Tim; Abraham, William J. (2006). Mary for Evangelicals: Toward an Understanding of the Mother of Our Lord (Illustrateded.). Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press. p.303. ISBN9780830825691.
↑ Martimort, Aimé Georges; Dalmais, Irénée Henri; Jounel, Pierre (1986). Martimort, Aimé Georges; etal. (eds.). The Liturgy and Time. The Church at Prayer: An Introduction to the Liturgy. Vol.IV. Translated by Matthew J. O'Connell (Newed.). Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press. p.130. ISBN9780814613665. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
1 2 3 Maiden and Mother: Prayers, Hymns, Devotions, and Songs to the Beloved Virgin Mary Throughout the Year by Margaret R. Miles 2001 ISBN0-86012-305-7 pages vii–x
↑ Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages, Volume 2 by André Vauchez et al 2001 ISBN1-57958-282-6 page 919
↑ McNally, Terrence, What Every Catholic Should Know about MaryISBN1-4415-1051-6 p. 132
↑ Du Pin, Louis Ellies (2010). A new history of ecclesiastical writers. Vol.1–2. p.212. ISBN978-1-171-18698-4.
↑ Butler, Alban; Farmer, David Hugh; Burns, Paul (2000). Butler's lives of the saints. Vol.1. A&C Black. p.3. ISBN0-86012-250-6.
↑ Rome by Yvonne Labande-Mailfert et al, 1961 ASIN: B0007E741C page 115
↑ Osborne, John L. "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche" Gesta 20.2 (1981:299–310) and (note 9) referencing T. Klauser, Rom under der Kult des Gottesmutter Maria, Jahrbuch für der Antike und Christentum 15 (1972:120–135).
↑ Maiden and Mother: Prayers, Hymns, Devotions, and Songs to the Beloved Beloved Virgin Mary Throughout the Year by M. M. Miles, Margaret R. Miles 2001 ISBN0-86012-305-7 page
↑ Songs of the dove and the nightingale: sacred and secular music c.900-c.1600 by Greta Mary Hair, Robyn E. Smith 1995 ISBN2-88449-141-4 page 63
↑ Catholic Music Through the Ages by Edward Schaefer 2008 ISBN1-59525-020-4 page 100
↑ Harvard dictionary of music by Willi Apel 1944 ISBN0-674-37501-7 pages 29 and 66
↑ Missa in honorem Beatissimae Virginis Mariae, No. 5 in E flat major, also known as the Grosse Orgelmesse (Great Organ Mass) (H. 22/4) (1766) and Missa Cellensis in honorem Beatissimae Virginis Mariae No. 3 in C major, (H. 22/5) (1766–73)
↑ Geoghegan. G.P. A Collection of My Favorite Prayers, 2006 ISBN1-4116-9457-0 pages 31, 45, 70, 86, 127
↑ Mary the Perfect Woman: One Hundred and Fifty Rhythms in Honor of the Mystical Life of Our Lady by Emily Mary Shapcote 2009 ISBN1-103-66388-7 pages xxii–xxxiii
↑ Thurston, Herbert. "The Hail Mary" The Month, Nov., 1901, pp. 486-8
↑ Thomas Aquinas. The Three Greatest Prayers, (Laurence Shapcote, trans.) Burns, Oates & Washburn, Ltd. (London 1937)
↑ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Angelus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
↑ Catholic Customs and Traditions: A Popular Guide by Greg Dues 1993 ISBN0-89622-515-1 page 126. Also, the Roman Pontifical assumes that Marian images were venerated in the time of Empress Helena in the late third century.
↑ The Celebration of Faith: The Virgin Mary by Alexander Schmemann 2001 ISBN0-88141-141-8 page 11
↑ Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions by Wendy Doniger, 1999 ISBN0-87779-044-2 page 696
↑ Grieving with Mary: Finding Comfort and Healing in Devotion to the Mother of God by Mary K. Doyle 2009 ISBN0-87946-397-X page 42
↑ Mary in Western art by Timothy Verdon, Filippo Rossi 2005 ISBN0-9712981-9-X page 11
↑ The Virgin, saints, and angels: South American paintings 1600–1825 by Suzanne L. Stratton-Pruitt 2006 ISBN88-7624-613-4 pages 34
↑ Donahue-Wallace, Kelly (2008). Art and Architecture of Viceregal Latin America, 1521–1821. Diálogos (Albuquerque, N.M.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 143. ISBN978-0-8263-3459-6
↑ Early modern confraternities in Europe and the Americas by Christopher F. Black, Pamela Gravestock 2006 ISBN0-7546-5174-6 page 11
↑ The Sodality of Our Lady: historical sketches by P.J. Kenedy & sons, 1916 ISBN page 37
↑ History of the sodalities of the blessed virgin Mary by Louis Delplace 1884 ISBN1-141-60228-8 page 211
↑ Maiden and Mother: Prayers, Hymns, Devotions, and Songs to the Beloved Virgin Mary Throughout the Year by Margaret M. Miles 2001 ISBN0-86012-305-7 page 125
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