Misogyny and mass media

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Examples of misogyny exist in many published forms, within multiple cultures and well-observed works. [1] [2] Technological advances in the modern era have contributed proficient means to media and marketing to the resultant mass media in the 21st century. The merging of misogyny and mass media has made numerous examples where studies have concluded correlations between misogynous messages, both obvious and subliminal. Corresponding physical appearance of violence and hateful conduct may be seen relative to exposure. [3]

Contents

Music, violence, and aggression


Messages containing misogynous views are found commonly in the media. [4] [5] Cooper (1985) found after analyzing popular music over 30 years, that there was a tendency to describe women in terms of physical attributes or as evil, as possessions of men, or as dependent upon men. Dietz states that the concept of masculinity has come to be associated with sexual aggression. [3] It is thought that audiences of unpunished violent behavior, compared to audiences of punished violent behavior are more likely to take part in violence. [5] Some musical themes and lyrics can be compared to the negative attitude toward women found within some pornographic movies and magazines. [4] This negative attitude and acceptance of violence towards women shows the possible likelihood of rape or sexual coercion. [6] Fischer and Greitemeyer found that men who listened to sexually aggressive music reported that their relationship with women was more troublesome. [7] Media Violence research has found that aggressive music adds an accessibility of aggressive related attitudes and emotions. [7] Roberta Hamilton in her book Does Misogyny Matter? (1987) stated, "Misogyny is not a word useful simply for describing particularly nasty bits of behavior, but rather it directs us to a set of relations, attitudes, and behaviors that are embedded within all social relations" (p. 123). [8] [9] Violence in the form of linguistics is in fact a form of physical violence. [10] [11]

Rubin, West and Mitchell (2001) found that many studies have seen consumers of rap and heavy metal music as having more hostile attitudes, higher sexual activity and more drug use than consumers of other music. [7]

Gangsta rap

Eminem performing live at the DJ Hero Party in Los Angeles Eminem performing live at dj hero party.jpg
Eminem performing live at the DJ Hero Party in Los Angeles

Themes of misogyny can be seen in much gangsta rap (GR) music. This music elevates degradations of women such as rape, torment, and violence. In a study conducted by Armstrong in 2001, he found after examining 490 GR songs, that 22 percent contained violent and misogynist lyrics. [11] Wester, Crown, Quatman, and Heesacker state that, "The increasing popularity of GR, coupled with documentation of society's increased sexism, [12] domestic violence, [13] sexual assault [14] and other forms of degradation of women [15] suggest that perhaps GR is partly to blame for an increase in anti-female attitudes and behaviors. It is difficult to tell whether GR directly causes misogynous attitudes or if it serves to increase preexisting anti-female cultural values. [5] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] The difference between rap music and other types of music is that the lyrics are generally the main focus of attention. [4] Rappers seem to commit themselves to worst impulses by telling their stories in the first-person. [11]

In a study conducted by Barongan and Hall (1995), they had male college students listen to rap music with misogynous or neutral song lyrics. After listening to the different music, they viewed three different vignettes. These vignettes were either sexual-violent, neutral, or assaultive. Then the students were asked to choose one of the three vignettes to show a female. Those who had listened to the misogynous music were significantly more likely to show the female the assaultive vignette. [7]

Regarding gangsta rap Yo-Yo states that, "The harder that you are, sad to say, the more you sell". [11] [21]

Hip-hop

Misogyny was not found in rap music until the 1980s even though it had been in the commercial market for 10 years. Some artists such as 2 Live Crew, Ice-T, and N.W.A. integrated misogynous lyrics into their rap songs. Women are reduced to objects – specifically objects that are only good for abuse, sex and for the most part are just trouble for men within misogynous rap. Using such misogynistic lyrics allows degradation of their female counterparts while boosting themselves up. [9]

This acceptance of misogyny can be seen in many rap lyrics. For example, in N.W.A's "She Swallowed It" (1991) gives a clear description; [11] [22]

Punch the bitch in the eye/ then the ho will fall to the ground/ Then you open up her mouth/ put your dick, move the shit around.

— N.W.A, "She Swallowed It"

Scenes of physical harm can be seen in Too $hort "All My Bitches Are Gone"(1993); [11] [23]

You fuck with us, bitch, something gettin' broken/ Your leg, arm, jaw, nose, pick a part.

— Too $hort, "All My Bitches Are Gone"

The artist Eminem is well known for his rap music containing extremely misogynous lyrics. In 2002 his Album The Eminem Show sold 7.4 million copies. [7]

Heavy metal

In a study conducted by Lawrence and Joyner with research participants who were white males between the ages of 18 and 24 and reported belonging to Protestant religious denominations (p. 52), it was found that the research participants exposed to sexually violent heavy metal music were found to have a higher tendency on sex-role stereotyping in comparison to those who listened to classical music. Nine participants (12%) indicated that their typical music listening preference was heavy-metal rock music; these participants were equally distributed across cells of the data collection (p. 52). Researchers suggest that; distrust, assault, and negative regard for women are common attitudes experienced by fans of different types of rock music. [6]

Although the conclusions made in article must be correct, the article examines misogyny in a very specific context. It is not that the entirely of heavy metal rock music is misogynistic, it is the specific instances within these contexts that must be addressed. There is misogyny within heavy metal rock music through sexually violent content that must be addressed by the smaller interactions between people. In order to correctly identify misogyny in the heavy metal rock industry, the people identifying and critiquing must be familiar with the platform and musical techniques so that biases are not clouding a whole musical discipline.

Most violent lyrics are not heard due to the fact a large number of listeners are not actually listening to the lyrics. This is very different from video-based media, in which the audience can see the violent message very clearly. It has also been found that some rock lyrics are so distorted that people just assume what they are actually saying. A majority of people often listen to just the music and not the lyrics while some listen to it while focusing on other tasks. [24]

Rap music also may contain positive images. Zillman et al. proposed that rap music is used as a way to fight oppression from the dominant culture. [25] It was also found by Kubrin that 68 percent of all gangsta rap's focal point is about respect. [26] [27] It is a "cultural response to historic oppression and racism, [and] a system for communication among black communities throughout the United States." With both gleeful and aggressive views on the situation of black Americans, Hip Hop artists were spread reality and lessons learned in a way that is understandable by a younger generation. [28] Some call it a "street-leveling language". [28]

Violent and aggressive videos

In music

AMTV, the name of MTV's music programming since 2009 AMTV.png
AMTV , the name of MTV's music programming since 2009

Felson, professor of crime, law, and justice and sociology at Penn State, states that a crowd of onlookers enjoys a street fight just as the Romans enjoyed the gladiators. [29] Found frequently in MTV music videos are images of crime, sex, dance, visual abstraction and violence. Audiences of MTV tend to be between the ages of fourteen and thirty-four, therefore has potential of contributing to cultural norms. [30] Smith and Boyson found that fifteen percent of music videos contain violence. [31] Before the introduction of music videos, research found that both music and television retained adolescents' attention, but music effectively connected with their emotions. [32] It is far more common to see a man being dominant over a woman, rather than a woman being dominant over a man in music videos. [33] [34] A study conducted by Rich, Woods, Goodman, Emans, and DuRant found that out of 518 music videos and among the 391 acts of violence the aggressors were 78 percent male and the victims were 46 percent female. [32] The need for artists to fill hours of airtime on television make certain that artists and their videos increasingly become more shocking, as to be noticed. Violence and sex or the combination of the two, are most often used for a shocking effect on viewers. [33]

Findings in a 2012 article by Tobias Greitemeyer and Jack Hollingdale titled, "Changing the Track in Music and Misogyny: Listening to Music With Pro-Equality Lyrics Improves Attitudes and Behavior Toward Women" [1]that the notion that media exposure may not only harm attitudes toward women (as previous research has documented), it may even improve people' images of women (p.61). The authors note that in their study they found it is likely the content of the lyrics that drives the effect a song has on people, and not the mood and arousal properties of the song. It is also noted that a variety of songs were used through their studies, making their findings not limited to a specific group of songs (p.64). Taking into consideration the emerging research into the effects that media has on people and how large of a role mass media plays on public opinions, it would be worthwhile to use music as a way to dismantle the misogyny embedded within the streams of mass media. [35]

Rock

In a content analysis of rock music videos, Vincent, Davis and Boruszkowski found that 57 percent showed women in a "patronizing" way (such as; victims, sex objects, and stupid) and 20 percent of them were found placed in traditional sex roles (domestic, motherly, and submissive), another eight percent demonstrated women receiving violence from a male. The amount where women were shown as equal to men was only fourteen percent. [36] [37] Lawrence and Joyner found in their research of rock music videos that even after a brief exposure of seventeen minutes there was appearance of negative effects on men's attitudes toward women. [6] It is stated later in the article that since there are no radio stations that feature heavy-metal music in the geographic area where this study was conducted, participants' limited prior exposure may explain why they were not differentially affected by the lyrical message. [6]

Rap

Johnson et al. found that women portrayed in sexually inferior roles in rap music videos have increased girls' acceptance of teen dating violence. They also found that these videos did not increase boys' acceptance of teen violence. [38] [39] Sommers-Flanagan found that not only are women shown in a position of submission to men, they are also shown in a more negative light than men in rap music videos. [27] [34] Conrad et al. found that recent (2009) rap music videos emphasize themes of misogyny, materialism and women tend to be placed in a position of objectification. [27]

In addition to women being placed in objectified positions, they are "criticized and loved at the same time for being covered up versus being scantily dressed." [40] Women in the rap industry are most commonly only mentioned by the media when it is to further stigmatize men, or to promote the stereotype that all black women are on welfare or are gold-diggers. [40]

Video games

In a 1998 study conducted by Tracy L. Dietz, professor of Sociology and Anthropology at the University of Central Florida, sampled 33 prominent Nintendo and Sega games and found that nearly 80 percent of the video games had some violence and aggression as part of the main strategy or object. Dietz claimed that violence was directed specifically towards women in 21% of the games sampled. Also in 28 percent of the games women were, according to Dietz, seen as sex objects and in 41 percent of the games there were no female characters. Overall Dietz asserted that most video games minimize the role of females or leave females out of the game all together, and that when females were shown they were usually depicted in a supporting role to men or dependent upon the male. Women were also seen as contributing less than males and were their sex objects. Dietz stated that these depictions of women may allow boys and girls to internalize and accept the thought that women are victims, weak, and sex objects. [3]

Violent pornography

By making misogyny sexual, pornography teaches misogyny to its viewers. [41] Negative effects from pornography have been thought to occur due to a violence component, and not to a sexual component. Males who have been previously enraged by a female are more likely to produce aggression against a female after being shown pornography depicting violence. [42] The combination of sex and aggression is increasingly being shown within pornographic material, therefore could be a possible trigger for aggressively willing men to physical assault accessible women. [43] The attorney general's commission found that viewing of sexually aggressive pornography is causally connected to sexual violent behavior. [44] Sexual violence portrayed in pornography as pleasurable to the victim may increase approval of sexual coercion, there by relating to sexual violence. [6] [45] [46] A common theme found within pornography is women enjoying victimization. This theme can be seen to give reason for violence and decrease general inhibitions against aggression. [43] [47] [48]

Usenet

Barron and Kimmel found that Usenet contains less consensual sex and more coercive sex in the scenes depicted. Within Usenet it was found that 62.7 percent of the scenes had a male perpetrators and only 42.4 percent of the scenes contained female perpetrators. Victims within Usenet was found to be females 84.7 percent of the time. At nearly no expense Usenet offers the greatest access to the largest number of viewers. [49]

Influencing misogyny

A summary of the effects of pornography research by Linz and Donnerstein (1989) concluded that depictions of sexual violence in the media, under some conditions, promote antisocial attitudes and behavior. Linz and Donnerstein focused on the detrimental effects of exposure to violent images in pornography portraying the myth that women enjoy or in some way benefit from rape, torture, or other forms of sexual violence. Other research has found similar outcomes (e.g., Allen et al., 1995). The viewing of coercive pornography relates to the strongest acceptance of rape myths, i.e. women want to be raped, women "ask for it", women want to be forced. Considering the commodification and objectification argument, concern exists that repeated exposure to coercive pornographic stimuli relates to increasingly negative attitudes toward women. More frequent use increased the dehumanizing effect of Internet pornography and led to more acceptance of violence toward women. [50]

Pornography has been found to desensitize societies to violence against women, inspiring rapes and contributing to the sexual subordination of women to men (2009). Making their materials, pornographers exploit existing inequality between the sexes to coerce women and children to perform unwanted or dangerous sexual acts as a form of prostitution. Existing legal regulations in democratic societies have not approached pornography with these realities in mind, but usually rather as a right protected by freedom of expression, or as an "obscene" expression offending the public rather than harming any particular group. In rare but important instances, pornography has legally been seen as a harmful practice violating women's human or democratic rights to equality. [51]

Most studies consistently show that after exposure to pornography and other forms of misogynistic media depicting degradation of women and rape, including hip hop and rap, viewers show attitudes that are less sympathetic to rape victims and more tolerant and accepting of violence toward women – in effect, such behavior becomes more "normalized" and "mainstreamed. It's desensitizing and addictive potentials are well-documented in its users." [52]

Internet misogyny

Internet misogyny is enacted in different forms and on different platforms. When one objectifies or harasses online, they are likely doing so anonymously and using shaming tactics to stigmatize the victim's identity or body. In this anonymity, the objectifier averts all real-life responsibility while nonetheless enforcing real-life consequences for the woman. [53] This tactic of anonymity fosters Internet objectification because it allows the objectifier to create a desired situation where the woman deals with the responsibilities instead of the objectifier. [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aggression</span> Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness

Aggression is hostile and antagonistic behavior, often with the intent to cause harm, although it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultivation theory</span> Theory examining long-term effects of TV

Cultivation theory stands as a significant sociological and communications framework developed by George Gerbner and it was designed to unravel the enduring impacts of media consumption, with a primary focus on television. At its core, the theory posits a compelling hypothesis: individuals who invest more time in watching television are prone to perceive the real world through a lens aligning with the prevalent depictions in television messages, in contrast to their counterparts with lower television viewership but comparable demographic profiles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opposition to pornography</span> Overview of opposing views to pornography

Reasons for opposition to pornography include religious objections and feminist concerns, as well as alleged harmful effects, such as pornography addiction. Pornography addiction is not a condition recognized by the DSM-5, or the ICD-11. Anti-pornography movements have allied disparate social activists in opposition to pornography, from social conservatives to harm reduction advocates. The definition of "pornography" varies between countries and movements, and many make distinctions between pornography, which they oppose, and erotica, which they consider acceptable. Sometimes opposition will deem certain forms of pornography more or less harmful, while others draw no such distinctions.

Rape pornography is a subgenre of pornography involving the description or depiction of rape. Such pornography either involves simulated rape, wherein sexually consenting adults feign rape, or it involves actual rape. Victims of actual rape may be coerced to feign consent such that the pornography produced deceptively appears as simulated rape or non-rape pornography. The depiction of rape in non-pornographic media is not considered rape pornography. Simulated scenes of rape and other forms of sexual violence have appeared in mainstream cinema, including rape and revenge films, almost since its advent.

School violence includes violence between school students as well as attacks by students on school staff. It encompasses physical violence, including student-on-student fighting, corporal punishment; psychological violence such as verbal abuse, and sexual violence, including rape and sexual harassment. It includes many forms of bullying and carrying weapons to school. The one or more perpetrators typically have more physical, social, and/or psychological power than the victim. It is a widely accepted serious societal problem in recent decades in many countries, especially where weapons such as guns or knives are involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape culture</span> Society in which rape is pervasive and normalised

Rape culture is a setting, studied by several sociological theories, in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut-shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence, or some combination of these. It has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire societies have been alleged to be rape cultures.

The studies of violence in radio analyzes the degree of correlation between themes of violence in media sources with real-world aggression and violence over time. Many social scientists support the correlation, however, some scholars argue that media research has methodological problems and that findings are exaggerated. Other scholars have suggested that the correlation exists, but can be unconventional to the current public belief.

Rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differ among victims, individuals tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long-term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of pornography</span> Influence of pornography on an individual and their intimate relationships

Pornography has been defined as any material in varying forms, including texts, video, photos or audio that is consumed for sexual satisfaction and arousal of an individual or partnership. Pornography would have varying effects in regard to things such as exposure and consumption. The effects of pornography on individuals or their intimate relationships depend on the type of pornography used and differs from person to person. The consumption of Pornographic material could have both positive and negative outcomes.

Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.

Feminist views on pornography range from total condemnation of the medium as an inherent form of violence against women to an embracing of some forms as a medium of feminist expression. This debate reflects larger concerns surrounding feminist views on sexuality, and is closely related to those on prostitution, BDSM, and other issues. Pornography has been one of the most divisive issues in feminism, particularly in Anglophone (English-speaking) countries. This division was exemplified in the feminist sex wars of the 1980s, which pitted anti-pornography activists against pro-pornography ones.

Misogyny in rap music refers to lyrics, videos, or other aspects of rap music that support, glorify, justify, or normalize the objectification, exploitation, or victimization of women. It is an ideology that portrays women as objects for men's ownership, use, or abuse. It diminishes women to expendable beings. It can range from innuendoes to stereotypical characterizations and defamations.

Cartoon violence is the representation of violent actions involving animated characters and situations. This may include violence where a character is unharmed after the action has been inflicted. Animated violence is sometimes partitioned into comedic and non-comedic cartoon violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender representation in video games</span> Portrayal of men, women and LGBT people in video games

The portrayal of gender in video games, as in other media, is a subject of research in gender studies and is discussed in the context of sexism in video gaming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender in horror films</span>

The representation of gender in horror films, particularly depictions of women, has been the subject of critical commentary.

The media and American adolescent sexuality relates to the effect the media has on the sexuality of American adolescents and the portrayal thereof.

The exploitation of women in mass media is the use or portrayal of women in mass media as objects to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. This process includes the presentation of women as sexual objects and the setting of feminine beauty ideals that women are expected to reflect. Sexual exploitation of women in the media dates back to 19th century Paris, in which ballerinas were exposed to harassment and objectification. The ballerinas in the Paris Opera Ballet were ogled by their male audience members and often even expected to perform sexual favors for the male subscribers behind the scenes. Feminists and other advocates of women's rights have criticized such exploitation. The most often criticized aspect of the use of women in mass media is sexual objectification, but dismemberment can be a part of the objectification as well.

The culture of violence theory addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within a societal dimension. The concept of violence being ingrained in Western society and culture has been around for at least the 20th century. Developed from structural violence, as research progressed the notion that a culture can sanction violent acts developed into what we know as culture of violence theory today. Two prominent examples of culture legitimizing violence can be seen in rape myths and victim blaming. Rape myths lead to misconstrued notions of blame; it is common for the responsibility associated with the rape to be placed on the victim rather than the offender.

Forbes magazine reported in 2017 that hip hop was the "dominant musical genre" in the U.S. music industry and, for the first time, outsold any other U.S. musical genre. With its cultural foundation in the South Bronx, hip hop has grown in popularity since its beginnings in 1979. Popular dominance of the genre coincided with the international #MeToo movement, which exposed the sexual misconduct of men in positions of power in the field of entertainment. Although women and men from all walks of life worldwide have shared their #MeToo stories, accounts in the music industry were few; the industry evaded public scrutiny, despite its dominance as broadcast and streaming media.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolf Zillmann</span>

Dolf Zillmann is dean emeritus, and professor of information sciences, communication and psychology at the University of Alabama (UA). Zillmann predominantly conducted research in media psychology, a branch of psychology focused on the effects of media consumption on human affect, developing and expanding a range of theories within media psychology and communication. His work centred on the relation between aggression, emotion, and arousal through media consumption, predominantly in pornography and violent genres of movie and television. His research also includes the effects of music consumption, video games, and sports.

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