See also
Look up heteropatriarchy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
In feminist theory, heteropatriarchy (etymologically from heterosexual and patriarchy ) or cisheteropatriarchy, is a social construct where (primarily) cisgender (same gender as identified at birth) and heterosexual males have authority over other cisgender males, females, and people with other sexual orientations and gender identities. It is a term that emphasizes that discrimination against women and LGBT people is derived from the same sexist social principle. [1] [2] [3]
The concept postulates that in heteropatriarchal societies, cisgender heterosexual men generally occupy the highest positions of power in society, causing women (including transgender women), non-binary people, transgender men, and other LGBT people to experience the bulk of social oppression in relation to gender and sexuality. [1]
The theory of the concept asserts that, as a social system, heteropatriarchy perceives heterosexuality and patriarchy as normal while other configurations are considered abnormal. [4] Normalization of heteropatriarchy is said to perpetuate an environment of oppression and inequality for racial and sexual minority groups. [5]
Heteropatriarchy is a facet of popular feminist analysis used to explain modern hierarchical social structure, which is dependent upon, and includes, the perspective of gender roles, based on a system of interlocking forces of power and oppression. It is said to be commonly understood, in this context, that men typically occupy the highest positions of power and women experience the bulk of social oppression. [6]
This system of socio-political dominance is said to be reinforced by gender norms, which ascribe traits of femininity and masculinity to people, [7] whereby cisgender heterosexual men are favored and are routinely remunerated for presenting masculine traits, and conversely, women and people who display traits deemed feminine receive less societal privilege. The concept implies that historically this has manifested in economic disadvantages such as unequal pay, or the inability for women to own land. [8]
The practice of legal (and social) culture of relegating gender to the realm of "women's issues" and sexual orientation to the realm of "sexual minorities' issues” is fundamental to this concept of a heteropatriarchal society. [9] It implies further, that not only are heterosexual men given primacy over other gender and sexual minorities, but they also are encouraged and rewarded by a heteropatriarchal society, [10] and that on the microscopic level, heteropatriarchy could be evident in consumption habits and relationships while on the macroscopic level, it is demonstrated by the glass ceiling, marriage, and the legal control over the bodies of women. [11]
From a historical point of view, the term patriarchy refers to the father as the power holder inside family hierarchy, and thereby, women become subordinate to the power of men. Patriarchy is a social system in which men have predominant power and are dominant and have privilege in roles such as: political, economical, societal, and social roles. With the emergence of queer theory around the 1980s and the 1990s and the questioning of heteronormativity and gender binary in contemporary societies, this kind of domination was described not only in terms of gender (the predominance of men over woman, or the masculine over the feminine) or sex, but also in terms of sexuality (the heteronormativity, or heterosexuality above other sexual orientations and the cisgender over other identities). [1] [12] The term heteropatriarchy is said to have evolved from what is described as the previous, less specific term 'patriarchy' in order to emphasize the formation of a male-dominated society based upon the cultural processes of sexism or heterosexism. [13]
The concept presumes that since ancient times, heteropatriarchy has shaped the way societies across the world have viewed masculinity and femininity and that this societal system has had negative effects on societies that remain apparent in modern days.
Research by Evelyn Nakano Glenn postulates that Ancient China is an example that confirms this, being a society having male emperors with dominant power, in which women and people who showed feminine traits were objectified and oppressed. Exceptions to the premise not being addressed, women were seen as obedient housewives whose main purpose was to serve males. [14] The conclusion seems to be that due to this, the voices of women have been ignored and suppressed, leading to a system that grew into a society denying women rights and that they were dehumanized.[ citation needed ]
Some contemporary research postulates that while there is no definitive origin for heteropatriarchy, various places and societies may have contributed significantly to its creation. The classical period of ancient Greek society is identified as one of these contributory factors. It has been argued[ by whom? ] that there are records that show that the ancient Greek system used gender and sex as the very foundation of human identity and the very basis of social organization. [1] The concept asserts that these Greeks had a critical role in the institutionalization of patriarchy in the Western world and also had an impact on Roman imperialism that furthered their gender/sex ideas into modern arrangements. [1] Recently, some of these scholars have begun to document the critical role of these Greeks in the institutionalization of patriarchy in the Western World. Synthesizing the work of such scholars is thought to demonstrate how the Greek gender/sex system, as mediated through Roman imperialism, gave rise to the gender/sex conceptions that birthed contemporary arrangements. [1]
In a premise where heteropatriarchy is established in a domestic arrangement, heteropaternalism is identified as another cause that has led to heteropatriarchy, [5] meaning that the father of a house is the leader and center power of a family household, and is in charge of any social arrangements. Even though heteropatriarchy and heteropaternalism mainly define the perspective of patriarchy that makes up a mindset about gender wherein men are seen as strong and capable while women are perceived as weak and less capable, [15] the concept asserts that this ideology has been promoted through colonization and spreading of Eurocentric culture, reaching hegemony around the world and removing other gender systems as well as other ways of understanding society, gender, or eroticism. [1] [5]
Some researchers in this field of study cite one of the main foundations of heteropatriarchy as the normalization of the nuclear family as the only acceptable family unit, manifesting this societal system into modern day, [16] which they postulate has regulated the bodies of Indigenous women, queer, and trans people and sets out to destroy, control, and manipulate these differences into hierarchies. [17] The effects of heteropatriarchy are said to have disproportionately affected minority groups, indigenous people, and the LGBT community.
Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other social divisions such as in race, class, and sexual orientation. The ideology and movement emerged in the 1960s.
Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. It is traditionally contrasted with femininity.
Socialist feminism rose in the 1960s and 1970s as an offshoot of the feminist movement and New Left that focuses upon the interconnectivity of the patriarchy and capitalism. However, the ways in which women's private, domestic, and public roles in society has been conceptualized, or thought about, can be traced back to Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) and William Thompson's utopian socialist work in the 1800s. Ideas about overcoming the patriarchy by coming together in female groups to talk about personal problems stem from Carol Hanisch. This was done in an essay in 1969 which later coined the term 'the personal is political.' This was also the time that second wave feminism started to surface which is really when socialist feminism kicked off. Socialist feminists argue that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.
Male privilege is the system of advantages or rights that are available to men on the basis of their sex. A man's access to these benefits may vary depending on how closely they match their society's ideal masculine norm.
Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. The term is most often used in reference to men who actively support feminism and its efforts to bring about the political, economic, cultural, personal, and social equality of women with men. A number of pro-feminist men are involved in political activism, most often in the areas of gender equality, women's rights, and ending violence against women.
Political lesbianism is a phenomenon within feminism, primarily second-wave feminism and radical feminism; it includes, but is not limited to, lesbian separatism. Political lesbianism asserts that sexual orientation is a political and feminist choice, and advocates lesbianism as a positive alternative to heterosexuality for women as part of the struggle against sexism.
Sociology of gender is a subfield of sociology. As one of the most important social structures is status. One of the most important statuses an individual claims is gender. Public discourse and the academic literature generally use the term gender for the perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person.
Feminist sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of sexology that focuses on the intersectionality of sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women. Sexology has a basis in psychoanalysis, specifically Freudian theory, which played a big role in early sexology. This reactionary field of feminist sexology seeks to be inclusive of experiences of sexuality and break down the problematic ideas that have been expressed by sexology in the past. Feminist sexology shares many principles with the overarching field of sexology; in particular, it does not try to prescribe a certain path or "normality" for women's sexuality, but only observe and note the different and varied ways in which women express their sexuality. It is a young field, but one that is growing rapidly.
In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is part of R. W. Connell's gender order theory, which recognizes multiple masculinities that vary across time, society, culture, and the individual. Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men's dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man. Conceptually, hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine" in a given society.
Queer heterosexuality is heterosexual practice or identity that is also controversially called queer. "Queer heterosexuality" is argued to consist of heterosexual, cisgender, and allosexual persons who show nontraditional gender expressions, or who adopt gender roles that differ from the hegemonic masculinity and femininity of their particular culture.
Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term patriarchy is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in feminist theory to describe a broader social structure in which men as a group dominate society.
Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender. Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.
Sexual stigma is a form of social stigma against people who are perceived to be non-heterosexual because of their beliefs, identities or behaviors. Privileged individuals, or the majority group members, are the main contributors of placing sexual stigmas on individuals and their minority group. It is those who hold a higher status that determine within a society which groups are deemed unworthy of a higher status by labeling their specific actions or beliefs. Stereotypes are then produced which further the debilitating effects of the label(s) placed on group members with non-heterosexual beliefs or practices.
Compulsory heterosexuality, often shortened to comphet, is the theory that heterosexuality is assumed and enforced upon people by a patriarchal, allonormative, and heteronormative society. The term was popularized by Adrienne Rich in her 1980 essay titled "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence". According to Rich, social science and literature perpetuate the societal belief that women in every culture are believed to have an innate preference for romantic and sexual relationships with men. She argues that women's sexuality towards men is not always natural but is societally ingrained and scripted into women. Comphet describes the belief that society is overwhelmingly heterosexual and delegitimizes queer identities. As a result, it perpetuates homophobia and legal inequity for the LGBTQ+ community.
Gender policing is the imposition or enforcement of normative gender expressions on an individual who is perceived as not adequately performing, through appearance or behavior, their gender or sex that was assigned to them at birth. According to Judith Butler, rejection of individuals who are non-normatively gendered is a component of creating one's own gender identity.
Feminist views on sexuality widely vary. Many feminists, particularly radical feminists, are highly critical of what they see as sexual objectification and sexual exploitation in the media and society. Radical feminists are often opposed to the sex industry, including opposition to prostitution and pornography. Other feminists define themselves as sex-positive feminists and believe that a wide variety of expressions of female sexuality can be empowering to women when they are freely chosen. Some feminists support efforts to reform the sex industry to become less sexist, such as the feminist pornography movement.
Internalized sexism is a form of sexist behavior and attitudes enacted by women toward themselves or other women and girls. Internalized sexism is a form of internalized oppression, which "consists of oppressive practices that continue to make the rounds even when members of the oppressor group are not present." Internalized sexism can have a range of effects on women and girls such as problems with mental health and body image. Modes of internalization of sexism include early childhood inculturation and consumption of media, especially of celebrity and entertainment news.
In feminist theory, the male gaze is the act of depicting women and the world in the visual arts and in literature from a masculine, heterosexual perspective that presents and represents women as sexual objects for the pleasure of the heterosexual male viewer. The concept was first articulated by British feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey in her 1975 essay, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. Mulvey's theory draws on historical precedents, such as the depiction of women in European oil paintings from the Renaissance period, where the female form was often idealized and presented from a voyeuristic male perspective. Art historian John Berger, in his work Ways of Seeing (1972), highlighted how traditional Western art positioned women as subjects of male viewers’ gazes, reinforcing a patriarchal visual narrative.
Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities are a topic of much debate; some people believe traditional, heterosexual gender roles are often erroneously enforced on non-heterosexual relationships by means of heteronormative culture and attitudes towards these non-conformative relationships.
Cisnormativity or cissexual assumption is the assumption that everyone is, or ought to be, cisgender. The term can further refer to a wider range of presumptions about gender assignment, such as the presumption of a gender binary, or expectations of conformity to gender roles even when transgender identities are otherwise acknowledged. Cisnormativity is a form of cisgenderism, an ideology which promotes various normative ideas about gender, to the invalidation of individuals' own gender identities, analogous to heterosexism or ableism.