Contamination

Last updated

Contamination is the presence of a constituent, impurity, or some other undesirable element that renders something unsuitable, unfit or harmful for both physical body, natural environment, workplace, etc. [1] [2] [3]

Contents

Types of contamination

Within the sciences, the word "contamination" can take on a variety of subtle differences in meaning, whether the contaminant is a solid or a liquid, [3] as well as the variance of environment the contaminant is found to be in. [2] A contaminant may even be more abstract, as in the case of an unwanted energy source that may interfere with a process. [2] The following represent examples of different types of contamination based on these and other variances.

Chemical contamination

In chemistry, the term "contamination" usually describes a single constituent, but in specialized fields the term can also mean chemical mixtures, even up to the level of cellular materials. All chemicals contain some level of impurity. Contamination may be recognized or not and may become an issue if the impure chemical causes additional chemical reactions when mixed with other chemicals or mixtures. Chemical reactions resulting from the presence of an impurity may at times be beneficial, in which case the label "contaminant" may be replaced with "reactant" or "catalyst." (This may be true even in physical chemistry, where, for example, the introduction of an impurity in an intrinsic semiconductor positively increases conductivity. [4] ) If the additional reactions are detrimental, other terms are often applied such as "toxin", "poison", or pollutant, depending on the type of molecule involved. [5] Chemical decontamination of substance can be achieved through decomposition, neutralization, and physical processes, though a clear understanding of the underlying chemistry is required. [6] Contamination of pharmaceutics and therapeutics is notoriously dangerous and creates both perceptual and technical challenges. [7]

Environmental contamination

In environmental chemistry, the term "contamination" is in some cases virtually equivalent to pollution, where the main interest is the harm done on a large scale to humans, organisms, or environments. An environmental contaminant may be chemical in nature, though it may also be a biological (pathogenic bacteria, virus, invasive species) or physical (energy) agent. [8] Environmental monitoring is one mechanism available to scientists to detect contamination activities early before they become too detrimental.

Agricultural contamination

Another type of environmental contaminant can be found in the form of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), specifically when they come in contact with organic agriculture. This sort of contamination can result in the decertification of a farm. [9] This sort of contamination can at times be difficult to control, necessitating mechanisms for compensating farmers where there has been contamination by GMOs. [10] A Parliamentary Inquiry in Western Australia considered a range of options for compensating farmers whose farms had been contaminated by GMOs but ultimately settled on recommending no action. [11]

Food, beverage, and pharmaceutical contamination

In food chemistry and medicinal chemistry, the term "contamination" is used to describe harmful intrusions, such as the presence of toxins or pathogens in food or pharmaceutical drugs. [6] [12] [13] [14] [15]

Radioactive contamination

In environments where nuclear safety and radiation protection are required, radioactive contamination is a concern. Radioactive substances can appear on surfaces, or within solids, liquids, or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable, and processes can give rise to their presence in such places. [16] [17] Several examples of radioactive contamination include:

Note that the term "radioactive contamination" may have a connotation that is not intended. The term refers only to the presence of radioactivity and gives no indication itself of the magnitude of the hazard involved. However, radioactivity can be measured as a quantity in a given location or on a surface, or on a unit area of a surface, such as a square meter or centimeter.

Like environmental monitoring, radiation monitoring can be employed to catch contamination-causing activities before much harm.

Interplanetary contamination

Interplanetary contamination occurs when a planetary body is biologically contaminated by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberately or unintentionally. This can work both on arrival to the foreign planetary body and upon return to Earth. [21]

Contaminated evidence

In forensic science, evidence can become contaminated. Contamination of fingerprints, hair, skin, or DNA—from first responders or from sources not related to the ongoing investigation, such as family members or friends of the victim who are not suspects—can lead to wrongful convictions, mistrials, or dismissal of evidence. [22] [23]

Contaminated samples

Contamination on agar plate Contamination on agar plate.jpg
Contamination on agar plate

In the biological sciences, accidental introduction of "foreign" material can seriously distort the results of experiments where small samples are used. In cases where the contaminant is a living microorganism, it can often multiply to dominate the sample and render it useless, as in contaminated cell culture lines. A similar affect can be seen in geology, geochemistry, and archaeology, where even a few grains of a material can distort results of sophisticated experiments. [24]

Food contaminant detection method

The conventional food contaminant test methods may be limited by complicated/tedious sample preparing procedure, long testing time, sumptuous instrument, and professional operator. [25] However, some rapid, novel, sensitive, and easy to use and affordable methods were developed including:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollution</span> Introduction of contaminants that cause adverse change

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance or energy. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

Eosinophilia–myalgia syndrome is a rare, sometimes fatal neurological condition linked to the ingestion of the dietary supplement L-tryptophan. The risk of developing EMS increases with larger doses of tryptophan and increasing age. Some research suggests that certain genetic polymorphisms may be related to the development of EMS. The presence of eosinophilia is a core feature of EMS, along with unusually severe myalgia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brownfield land</span> Previous industrial or commercial land, often somewhat contaminated as a result

Brownfield refers to land that is abandoned or underutilized due to pollution from industrial use. The specific definition of brownfield land varies and is decided by policy makers and/or land developers within different countries. The main difference in definitions of whether a piece of land is considered a brownfield or not depends on the presence or absence of pollution. Overall, brownfield land is a site previously developed for industrial or commercial purposes and thus requires further development before reuse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution</span> Contamination of water bodies

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources: sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution is either surface water pollution or groundwater pollution. This form of pollution can lead to many problems, such as the degradation of aquatic ecosystems or spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Another problem is that water pollution reduces the ecosystem services that the water resource would otherwise provide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental remediation</span> Removal of pollution from soil, groundwater etc.

Environmental remediation is the cleanup of hazardous substances dealing with the removal, treatment and containment of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment. Remediation may be required by regulations before development of land revitalization projects. Developers who agree to voluntary cleanup may be offered incentives under state or municipal programs like New York State's Brownfield Cleanup Program. If remediation is done by removal the waste materials are simply transported off-site for disposal at another location. The waste material can also be contained by physical barriers like slurry walls. The use of slurry walls is well-established in the construction industry. The application of (low) pressure grouting, used to mitigate soil liquefaction risks in San Francisco and other earthquake zones, has achieved mixed results in field tests to create barriers, and site-specific results depend upon many variable conditions that can greatly impact outcomes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radioactive contamination</span> Undesirable radioactive elements on surfaces or in gases, liquids, or solids

Radioactive contamination, also called radiological pollution, is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids, or gases, where their presence is unintended or undesirable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental chemistry</span> Scientific study of the chemical and phenomena that occur in natural places

Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity and biological activity on these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as heavily relying on analytical chemistry and being related to environmental and other areas of science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caesium-137</span> Radioactive isotope of caesium

Caesium-137, cesium-137 (US), or radiocaesium, is a radioactive isotope of caesium that is formed as one of the more common fission products by the nuclear fission of uranium-235 and other fissionable isotopes in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Trace quantities also originate from spontaneous fission of uranium-238. It is among the most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products. Caesium-137 has a relatively low boiling point of 671 °C (1,240 °F) and easily becomes volatile when released suddenly at high temperature, as in the case of the Chernobyl nuclear accident and with atomic explosions, and can travel very long distances in the air. After being deposited onto the soil as radioactive fallout, it moves and spreads easily in the environment because of the high water solubility of caesium's most common chemical compounds, which are salts. Caesium-137 was discovered by Glenn T. Seaborg and Margaret Melhase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil contamination</span> Pollution of land by human-made chemicals or other alteration

Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical substance. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapour from the contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting clean ups are time-consuming and expensive tasks, and require expertise in geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modelling, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food contaminant</span> Harmful substance in food

A food contaminant is a harmful chemical or microorganism present in food, which can cause illness to the consumer.

This article discusses topics related to the environment of Pakistan.

Microbial toxins are toxins produced by micro-organisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, dinoflagellates, and viruses. Many microbial toxins promote infection and disease by directly damaging host tissues and by disabling the immune system. Endotoxins most commonly refer to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or lipooligosaccharide (LOS) that are in the outer plasma membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The botulinum toxin, which is primarily produced by Clostridium botulinum and less frequently by other Clostridium species, is the most toxic substance known in the world. However, microbial toxins also have important uses in medical science and research. Currently, new methods of detecting bacterial toxins are being developed to better isolate and understand these toxins. Potential applications of toxin research include combating microbial virulence, the development of novel anticancer drugs and other medicines, and the use of toxins as tools in neurobiology and cellular biology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of war</span> Environmental problems caused by warfare

Study of the environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment. Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history. However, the methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment. The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment. Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War and the Gulf War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental effects of mining</span> Environmental problems from uncontrolled mining

Environmental effects of mining can occur at local, regional, and global scales through direct and indirect mining practices. Mining can cause erosion, sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, or the contamination of soil, groundwater, and surface water by chemicals emitted from mining processes. These processes also affect the atmosphere through carbon emissions which contributes to climate change. Some mining methods may have such significant environmental and public health effects that mining companies in some countries are required to follow strict environmental and rehabilitation codes to ensure that the mined area returns to its original state.

Mass spectrometric immunoassay (MSIA) is a rapid method is used to detect and/ or quantify antigens and or antibody analytes. This method uses an analyte affinity isolation to extract targeted molecules and internal standards from biological fluid in preparation for matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). This method allows for "top down" and "bottom up" analysis. This sensitive method allows for a new and improved process for detecting multiple antigens and antibodies in a single assay. This assay is also capable of distinguishing mass shifted forms of the same molecule via a panantibody, as well as distinguish point mutations in proteins. Each specific form is detected uniquely based on their characteristic molecular mass. MSIA has dual specificity because of the antibody-antigen reaction coupled with the power of a mass spectrometer.

Pollution in the Arctic Ocean is primarily the result of economic activities carried out on land, which is sources from locally, regionally, and globally origins. There is also the inclusion of industrial development in the Arctic region, northern rivers, and the effects of military activities, particularly nuclear activity – as well as the influx of pollutants from other regions of the world.However, the Arctic Ocean remains relatively clean compared to other marine regions of the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioremediation of radioactive waste</span>

Bioremediation of radioactive waste or bioremediation of radionuclides is an application of bioremediation based on the use of biological agents bacteria, plants and fungi to catalyze chemical reactions that allow the decontamination of sites affected by radionuclides. These radioactive particles are by-products generated as a result of activities related to nuclear energy and constitute a pollution and a radiotoxicity problem due to its unstable nature of ionizing radiation emissions.

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) is a term used by water quality professionals to describe pollutants that have been detected in environmental monitoring samples, that may cause ecological or human health impacts, and typically are not regulated under current environmental laws. Sources of these pollutants include agriculture, urban runoff and ordinary household products and pharmaceuticals that are disposed to sewage treatment plants and subsequently discharged to surface waters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hazmat diving</span> Underwater diving in a known hazardous materials environment

Hazmat diving is underwater diving in a known hazardous materials environment. The environment may be contaminated by hazardous materials, the diving medium may be inherently a hazardous material, or the environment in which the diving medium is situated may include hazardous materials with a significant risk of exposure to these materials to members of the diving team. Special precautions, equipment and procedures are associated with hazmat diving so that the risk can be reduced to an acceptable level.

The Chernobyl disaster remains the major and most detrimental nuclear catastrophe which completely altered the radioactive background of the Northern Hemisphere. It happened in April 1986 on the territory of the former Soviet Union. The catastrophe led to the increase of radiation in nearly one million times in some parts of Europe and North America compared to the pre-disaster state. Air, water, soils, vegetation and animals were contaminated to a varying degree. Apart from Ukraine and Belarus as the worst hit areas, adversely affected countries included Russia, Austria, Finland and Sweden. The full impact on the aquatic systems, including primarily adjacent valleys of Pripyat river and Dnieper river, are still unexplored.

References

  1. ↑ "contaminate". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 Donovan, R.P. (2001). "1. Introduction". In Donovan, R.P. (ed.). Contamination-Free Manufacturing for Semiconductors and Other Precision Products. CRC Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN   9780824703806. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-07-15.
  3. 1 2 Ramstorp, M. (2008). "2. Contaminants". Introduction to Contamination Control and Cleanroom Technology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–26. ISBN   9783527613137. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-07-15.
  4. ↑ Moudgil, H.K. (2014). Textbook of Physical Chemistry. PHI Learning. p. 278. ISBN   9788120350625. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  5. ↑ Alters, S. (2000). Biology: Understanding Life. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 828. ISBN   9780763708375. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  6. 1 2 Midcalf, B. (2004). Pharmaceutical Isolators: A Guide to Their Application, Design and Control. Pharmaceutical Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN   9780853695738. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  7. ↑ Abdin, Ahmad Yaman; Yeboah, Prince; Jacob, Claus (January 2020). "Chemical Impurities: An Epistemological Riddle with Serious Side Effects". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (3): 1030. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17031030 . PMC   7038150 . PMID   32041209.
  8. ↑ Vallero, D.A. (2010). "6. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry". Environmental Contaminants: Assessment and Control. Elsevier. pp. 289–332. ISBN   9780080470351. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  9. ↑ Paull, J. (2014). "Editorial: Organic Versus GMO Farming: Contamination, What Contamination?". Journal of Organic Systems. 9 (1): 2–4. Archived from the original on 2018-04-21. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  10. ↑ Paull, J. (2018). "Compensation for GMO contamination". International Sustainable Development Research Society Newsletter (3): 8. Archived from the original on 2020-01-19. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  11. ↑ Paull, John (2019) Contamination of Farms by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Options for Compensation Archived 2019-09-21 at the Wayback Machine , Journal of Organics, 6(1):31–46.
  12. ↑ Bohrer, D. (2012). "Preface". Sources of Contamination in Medicinal Products and Medical Devices. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   9781118449059. Archived from the original on 2021-12-04. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  13. ↑ Rose, M. (2014). "Environmental Contaminants". In Dikeman, M.; Devine, C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 497–501. ISBN   9780123847348. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  14. ↑ Wilson, C.L., ed. (2008). "Preface: Food—A necessity and a threat". Microbial Food Contamination. CRC Press. pp. xi–xvi. ISBN   9781420008470. Archived from the original on 2021-12-04. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  15. ↑ Ogbede, J.U., Giaever, G. & Nislow, C. A genome-wide portrait of pervasive drug contaminants. Sci Rep 11, 12487 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-91792-1 Archived 2021-12-04 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ↑ International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection, 2007 Edition (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 227. ISBN   978-9201007070. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  17. ↑ International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring, Safety Reporsts Series No. 64. International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 234. ISBN   9789201124098. Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  18. ↑ Chatzis, I. (26 July 2017). "Decommissioning and Environmental Remediation: IAEA Conference to Start on Monday". International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  19. ↑ Stanford Environmental Health and Safety (29 June 2017). "Radiation Protection Guidance for Hospital Staff" (PDF). p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  20. ↑ von Wehrden, Henrik (28 December 2011). "Consequences of nuclear accidents for biodiversity and ecosystem services". Conservation Letters. 5 (2): 81–89. doi:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00217.x. S2CID   83193558 – via Society of Conservation Biology.
  21. ↑ Cockell, C.S. (2005). "Planetary protection—A microbial ethics approach". Space Policy. 21 (4): 287–292. Bibcode:2005SpPol..21..287C. doi:10.1016/j.spacepol.2005.08.003.
  22. ↑ Taupin, J.M. (2013). Introduction to Forensic DNA Evidence for Criminal Justice Professionals. CRC Press. pp. 134–8. ISBN   9781439899090. Archived from the original on 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  23. ↑ Geddes, L. (11 January 2012). "How DNA Contamination Can Affect Court Cases". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
  24. ↑ Abzalov, M. (2016). Applied Mining Geology. Springer. p. 387. ISBN   9783319392646. Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2019-04-12.
  25. 1 2 Chiou, Jiachi; Leung, Arthur Ho Hon; Lee, Hang Wai; Wong, Wing-tak (2015-11-01). "Rapid testing methods for food contaminants and toxicants". Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 14 (11): 2243–2264. doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(15)61119-4 . ISSN   2095-3119.
  26. ↑ Garg, Bhaskar; Yan, Linyin; Bisht, Tanuja; Zhu, Chaoyuan; Ling, Yong-Chien (2014-08-15). "A phenothiazine-based colorimetric chemodosimeter for the rapid detection of cyanide anions in organic and aqueous media". RSC Advances. 4 (68): 36344–36349. Bibcode:2014RSCAd...436344G. doi:10.1039/C4RA06440B. ISSN   2046-2069.
  27. ↑ Kuang, Hua; Xing, Changrui; Hao, Changlong; Liu, Liqiang; Wang, Libing; Xu, Chuanlai (April 2013). "Rapid and Highly Sensitive Detection of Lead Ions in Drinking Water Based on a Strip Immunosensor". Sensors. 13 (4): 4214–4224. Bibcode:2013Senso..13.4214K. doi: 10.3390/s130404214 . ISSN   1424-8220. PMC   3673080 . PMID   23539028.
  28. ↑ Copetti, Marina V.; Iamanaka, Beatriz T.; Pitt, John I.; Taniwaki, Marta H. (2014-05-16). "Fungi and mycotoxins in cocoa: From farm to chocolate". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 178: 13–20. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.02.023. ISSN   0168-1605. PMID   24667314.
  29. ↑ Maragos, Chris (December 2009). "Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay of Mycotoxins: A Review". Toxins. 1 (2): 196–207. doi: 10.3390/toxins1020196 . ISSN   2072-6651. PMC   3202780 . PMID   22069541.
  30. ↑ Zhu, Kui; Dietrich, Richard; Didier, Andrea; Doyscher, Dominik; Märtlbauer, Erwin (April 2014). "Recent Developments in Antibody-Based Assays for the Detection of Bacterial Toxins". Toxins. 6 (4): 1325–1348. doi: 10.3390/toxins6041325 . ISSN   2072-6651. PMC   4014736 . PMID   24732203.
  31. ↑ Blažková, Martina; Rauch, Pavel; Fukal, Ladislav (2010-05-15). "Strip-based immunoassay for rapid detection of thiabendazole". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 25 (9): 2122–2128. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2010.02.011. ISSN   0956-5663. PMID   20236817.
  32. ↑ Holubová-Mičková, Barbora; Blažková, Martina; Fukal, Ladislav; Rauch, Pavel (2010-07-01). "Development of colloidal carbon-based immunochromatographic strip for rapid detection of carbaryl in fruit juices". European Food Research and Technology. 231 (3): 467–473. doi:10.1007/s00217-010-1301-z. ISSN   1438-2385. S2CID   97326355.
  33. ↑ Imene, Boussouar; Cui, ZhiMin; Zhang, Xiaoyan; Gan, Bing; Yin, Yanchao; Tian, Yuanyuan; Deng, Hongtao; Li, Haibing (2014-08-01). "4-Amino-3-mercaptobenzoic acid functionalized gold nanoparticles: Synthesis, selective recognition and colorimetric detection of cyhalothrin". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 199: 161–167. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2014.03.097. ISSN   0925-4005.
  34. ↑ Huang, Xiaolin; Aguilar, Zoraida P.; Li, Huaiming; Lai, Weihua; Wei, Hua; Xu, Hengyi; Xiong, Yonghua (2013-05-21). "Fluorescent Ru(phen) 3 2+ -Doped Silica Nanoparticles-Based ICTS Sensor for Quantitative Detection of Enrofloxacin Residues in Chicken Meat". Analytical Chemistry. 85 (10): 5120–5128. doi:10.1021/ac400502v. ISSN   0003-2700. PMID   23614687.
  35. ↑ Lu, Limin; Zhang, Ou; Xu, Jingkun; Wen, Yangping; Duan, Xuemin; Yu, Hongmei; Wu, Liping; Nie, Tao (2013-05-01). "A facile one-step redox route for the synthesis of graphene/poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) nanocomposite and their applications in biosensing". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 181: 567–574. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2013.02.024. ISSN   0925-4005.
  36. ↑ Parks, Sophie E.; Irving, Donald E.; Milham, Paul J. (2012-02-01). "A critical evaluation of on-farm rapid tests for measuring nitrate in leafy vegetables". Scientia Horticulturae. 134: 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2011.10.015. ISSN   0304-4238.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.