The genetically modified brinjal is a suite of transgenicbrinjals (also known as eggplant or aubergine) created by inserting a crystal protein gene (Cry1Ac) from the soil bacteriumBacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various brinjal cultivars. The insertion of the gene, along with other genetic elements such as promoters, terminators and an antibiotic resistance marker gene into the brinjal plant is accomplished using Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. The Bt brinjal has been developed to give resistance against lepidopteron insects, in particular, the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis)(FSB), by forming pores in the insects' digestive system.[1]Mahyco, an Indian seed company based in Jalna, Maharashtra, has developed the Bt brinjal.[2]
The genetically modified brinjal event is termed Event EE 1, and Mahyco has also applied for approval of two brinjal hybrids. Event EE 1 was introduced by breeding the plants into various local varieties by University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Some of the cultivars of Brinjal include Malpur local, Manjari gota, Kudachi local, Udupi local, 112 GO, and Pabkavi local.[3] It was approved for commercialization in India in 2009, but - after an apparent public outcry and rounds of debates in which representatives from Mahyco, the scientific community, and NGO's spoke on the topic - the then Indian Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, facilitated a moratorium on its release until further, unspecified, tests were conducted. Bt brinjal was approved for commercial release in Bangladesh in 2013.
By 2021, it was cultivated by nearly 65,000 farmers neting an aproxamate 6x net return, ~20% of farmers used seeds from previous seasons.[4]
Development
Mahyco licensed and used the cry1Ac gene obtained from Monsanto[2] and two supporting genes (nptII and aad). The cry1Ac gene is under the transcriptional control of an enhanced cauliflower mosaic virus 35S (CaMV35S) promoter, which ensures the gene is expressed in all the brinjal's tissue throughout its complete life cycle. NptII and aad are selectable marker genes, nptII is used to identify transgenic plants from non-transgenic, and aad is used to identify the transformed bacteria used during the development of the construct. Aad contains a bacterial promoter and is not expressed in the Bt brinjal. The completed construct was inserted into young cotyledons from the brinjal plants using an Agrobacterium-mediated technique. Agrobacterium naturally inserts DNA into plants from its Ti plasmid, and scientists use this to insert genes of interest into various plants. The transformed plants were regenerated and analyzed for the presence of the gene through Southern blotting. The plants' progeny were also analyzed to identify lines segregating in a Mendelian fashion.[5]
An expert committee (EC-I) was set up in 2006 to examine the biosafety data presented by Mahyco. They concluded that while the current data demonstrated that Bt brinjal was safe and equivalent to its non-Bt counterpart, more studies were required to re-affirm the findings, and further trials were needed to ascertain the benefits of Bt brinjal with respect to existing methods for pest management and pesticide reduction. They recommended that large-scale trials be allowed to go ahead. In 2009, a second expert committee (EC-II) examined the data from these trials. They concluded that adequate safety tests had been performed, stating that "the benefits of Bt brinjal event EE-I developed by M/s Mahyco far outweigh the perceived and projected risks", and advised the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) to recommend commercialization of the Bt brinjal.[7]
The GEAC cleared Bt brinjal for commercialization on 14 October 2009. Following concerns raised by some scientists, farmers and anti-GMO activists, the government of India officially announced on 9 February 2010 that it needed more time before releasing Bt brinjal, with Indian Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh saying that there is no overriding urgency to introduce Bt brinjal in India.[8][9] On 17 February 2010, Jairam Ramesh reiterated that the centre had only imposed a moratorium on the release of transgenic brinjal hybrid, and not a permanent ban, saying that "until we arrive at a political, scientific and societal consensus, this moratorium will remain". Companies with any seeds of Bt brinjal will have to register the details with the government, and the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) was made responsible for the storage of all the Bt brinjal seeds in India. Independent testing labs are currently being set up.[10]
An irregularity[11] was also brought to the notice of the Karnataka Biodiversity Board by Environment Support Group, a charitable trust in Bengaluru, in February 2010. It found that agencies accessed at least 10 brinjal varieties from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu without seeking prior consent of the National Biodiversity Authority and state biodiversity boards. Mahyco became India's first commercial entity to be accused of bio-piracy, or misappropriation, of local germplasm.[12] In October 2013, the Indian High Court was pursuing criminal proceedings against senior officials of Mahyco-Monsanto.[13] In June 2019 1,500 farmers gathered in India to protest and illegally plant GMO Brinjal seeds.[14] In 2022, the GEAC again approved Bt Brinjal for commercialization, but public oposition has stopped it from being used.[15]
Commercial cultivation in Bangladesh
On 30 October 2013, with approvals from the ministries of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and Agriculture (MoA), the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) received permission to release four varieties of Bt brinjal in time for the 2013–2014 growing season: Bt Uttara, Bt Kajla, Bt Nayantara, and Bt ISD006.[16] The Bt varieties underwent seven years of field and greenhouse trials in various environmental and geographic locations in Bangladesh[17]:4
Saplings were distributed to 20 farmers in January 2014[17]The Guardian spoke to 19 of 20 farmers growing the Bt brinjal crop in 2014 and established that it has so far had mixed results.[18] In September 2016, the Indian Business Standard quoted a director of the Bangladesh Department of Environment who said that production results had been very good from the 200–300 farmers who had grown the bt brinjal since 2013 but it was too early to judge whether there had been any contamination of wild brinjal.[19]
In 2017, 6,512 farmers grew Bt Brinjal and 27,012 in 2018.[20] A 2019 report[21] found that as a result of growing Bt Brinjal there was a 39% reduction in the use of pesticides and the yield of Bt Brinjal was also 43% higher. With reduced costs of pesticides and increased yield, profit of farmers increased by nearly $400 per hectare.
A 2020 report[22] found that farmers have achieved significantly higher yields and revenues by growing Bt brinjal. The four Bt brinjal varieties yielded on average 19.6 percent more than non-Bt varieties and earned growers 21.7 percent higher revenue. 83.1% of Bt brinjal growers were satisfied with the yields obtained and 80.6% were satisfied with the quality of fruit, compared to just 58.7% of non-Bt brinjal growers who were pleased with their yields.[22] Several other trials have produced similarly positive results, and a few in areas with high pest pressure achieved multiplication of yield several times without the need for further insecticide inputs.[23]
At the 2020 AAAS, it was announced that over 31,000 farmers in Bangladesh are now growing Bt brinjal.[24]
A randomized controlled trial performed between 2017 and 2018 found that Bt brinjal increased net yields by 51%. Bt brinjal farmers used smaller quantities of pesticides and sprayed less frequently. Bt brinjal reduced the toxicity of pesticides by as much as 76%. Farmers growing Bt brinjal and who had pre‐existing chronic conditions consistent with pesticide poisoning were 11.5% points less likely to report a symptom of pesticide poisoning.[25]
Philippines
Scientists from the University of the Philippines Los Baños-Institute of Plant Breeding (UPLB-IPB) are currently developing a version of GM Brinjal. [26]
In July 2021, the Philippine Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Plant Industry approved GM Brinjal for 'direct use as food, feed, or for processing'.[27][28]
In October 2022, the Philippine government approved the commercial growing of GM Brinjal (Eggplant).[29]
Many cultivars of eggplants displayed by protesters on the steps during the Feb. 2010 listening tour by India's environmental minister relating to BT Brinjal, in Bangalore, India
Many controversies surround the development and release of genetically modified foods, ranging from human safety and environmental impacts to ethical concerns such as corporate control of the food supply and intellectual property rights. The brinjal is an important food crop for India, and the potential commercialization of a genetically modified variety has drawn support and criticism. Although it is a major food crop in India, brinjal production is relatively low with fruit and shoot borer infestation a major constraint to yield.[31] Proponents of the technology believe the Bt brinjal will have positive effects for the Indian economy and the health of the farmers. Field trials conducted on research-managed farms carried out by Mahyco and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research suggested a 42% pesticide reduction and a doubling of the yield was possible.[32] The economic gain for consumers, developers and farmers was estimated to potentially be US$108 million per year with an additional $3–4 million saved due to health benefits associated with decreased pesticide use.[32][33]
A French scientist notable for his anti-GM perspective,[34]Gilles-Eric Seralini, raised concerns about some of the differences between feeding trials using the genetically modified and unmodified brinjal, and criticized some of the testing protocols.[35] The EC-II responded to the concerns raised by Seralini and other scientists in their report,[7] New Zealand epidemiologist Lou Gallagher also criticised the feeding trials saying that the raw data indicated toxic effects were associated with rats that were fed Bt Brinjal.[36] Concerns have also been raised about a possible conflict of interest, with some of the scientists appointed to the GEAC being involved in developing their own GM products, that the decision by the EC-II was not unanimous, and about the reliability of safety data originating from Mahcyo run trials.[37] The imposed moratorium has been criticized by some scientists as not being based on any compelling scientific evidence and potentially setting Indian biotechnology back decades.[38] Others feel the critical issue is not the safety of the GM technology, but its corporatization[39] and there are claims that India's crop protection industry was a major player in preventing the commercialization of Bt brinjal.[40] India's National Biodiversity Authority is probing the crop scientists involved in developing the Bt brinjal for allegedly violating India's Biological Diversity Act, 2002 by using local cultivars and foreign technology without their permission.[41] The Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture on 9 August 2012 asked the Government to stop all field trials and sought a ban on GM food crops like Bt brinjal. It also sought a "thorough probe" as to how permission was given to commercialise Bt brinjal seed when all evaluation tests were not carried out. The committee's report was tabled a day after the Maharashtra government canceled Mahyco's license to sell its Bt cotton seeds.[42]
Notes and references
↑ Sandeep Kumar, Amita Misra,† Alok Kumar Verma, Ruchi Roy, Anurag Tripathi, Kausar M. Ansari, Mukul Das and Premendra D. Dwivedi (15 November 2024). "Bt brinjal in India". GM Crops. 2 (2): 92–98 – via ReasearchGate.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Ghosh, S. K.; Laskar, N.; Senapati, S. K. (2003). "Estimation of loss in yield of brinjal due to pest complex under Terai region of West Bengal". Environ. Ecol. 21: 764–769.
1 2 Vijesh V. Krishnaa & Matin Qaim (2008). "Potential impacts of Bt eggplant on economic surplus and farmers'health in India". Agricultural Economics: 167–180.
↑ Staff (20 October 2012) Six French academies dismiss study linking GM corn to cancerAgence France-Presse, "Seralini is a well-known opponent of GM crops, and his research was funded in part by an alliance comprising anti-GM campaigners and supermarket chains that have invested heavily in organic food." (The same article was also published in several other places such as France24, Phys.Org and The Australian.) Retrieved 23 October 2012 "AFP: Six French academies dismiss study linking GM corn to cancer". Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
↑ Andrew Apel (May 2010). "The costly benefits of opposing agricultural biotechnology". New Biotechnology. 27 (5): 635–640. doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2010.05.006. PMID20472105.
Bacillus thuringiensis is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, flour mills and grain-storage facilities. It has also been observed to parasitize moths such as Cadra calidella—in laboratory experiments working with C. calidella, many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite.
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services.
Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), including animals, plants, and microorganisms.
The Monsanto Company was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri. Monsanto's best-known product is Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide, developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue.
Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.
Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using various methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.
Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Bt cotton is a genetically modified pest resistant plant cotton variety that produces an insecticide to combat bollworm.
Since the advent of genetic engineering in the 1970s, concerns have been raised about the dangers of the technology. Laws, regulations, and treaties were created in the years following to contain genetically modified organisms and prevent their escape. Nevertheless, there are several examples of failure to keep GM crops separate from conventional ones.
Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals.
The United States is the largest grower of commercial crops that have been genetically engineered in the world, but not without domestic and international opposition.
Genetically modified wheat is wheat that has been genetically engineered by the direct manipulation of its genome using biotechnology. As of 2020, no genetically-modified wheat is grown commercially, although many field tests have been conducted. One wheat variety, Bioceres HB4 Wheat, is obtaining regulatory approval from the government of Argentina.
Genetically modified rice are rice strains that have been genetically modified. Rice plants have been modified to increase micronutrients such as vitamin A, accelerate photosynthesis, tolerate herbicides, resist pests, increase grain size, generate nutrients, flavors or produce human proteins.
A genetically modified soybean is a soybean that has had DNA introduced into it using genetic engineering techniques. In 1996, the first genetically modified soybean was introduced to the U.S. by Monsanto. In 2014, 90.7 million hectares of GM soybeans were planted worldwide, making up 82% of the total soybeans cultivation area.
Genetically Modified (GM) food crops were introduced into Ghana in 2013. GM crops are controversial around the world for various reasons and Ghana is no exception. Groups against its introduction include Food Sovereignty Ghana, The Coalition For Farmer’s Rights, Advocacy Against GMOs, Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference and the Convention People’s Party (CPP). They argue that genetically modified food is not conducive to good health and is neo-colonialist in nature. That is, it hands control of the food supply to rich nations, which threatens food sovereignty and the national interest.
Cry1Ac protoxin is a crystal protein produced by the gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) during sporulation. Cry1Ac is one of the delta endotoxins produced by this bacterium which act as insecticides. Because of this, the genes for these have been introduced into commercially important crops by genetic engineering in order to confer pest resistance on those plants.
Genetic engineering in Hawaii is a hotly contested political topic. The Hawaiian Islands counties of Kauai, Hawaii and Maui passed or considered laws restricting the practice within their borders due to concerns about the health, the environment and impacts on conventional and organic agriculture.
India and China are the two largest producers of genetically modified products in Asia. India currently only grows GM cotton, while China produces GM varieties of cotton, poplar, petunia, tomato, papaya and sweet pepper. Cost of enforcement of regulations in India are generally higher, possibly due to the greater influence farmers and small seed firms have on policy makers, while the enforcement of regulations was more effective in China. Other Asian countries that grew GM crops in 2011 were Pakistan, the Philippines and Myanmar. GM crops were approved for commercialisation in Bangladesh in 2013 and in Vietnam and Indonesia in 2014.
Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11, otherwise known as DMH - 11, is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species Brassica juncea. It was developed by Professor Deepak Pental from the University of Delhi, with the aim of reducing India's demand for edible oil imports. DMH - 11 was created through transgenic technology, primarily involving the Bar, Barnase and Barstar gene system. The Barnase gene confers male sterility, while the Barstar gene restores DMH - 11's ability to produce fertile seeds. The insertion of the third gene Bar, enables DMH - 11 to produce phosphinothricin-N- acetyl-transferase, the enzyme responsible for Glufosinate resistance. This hybrid mustard variety has come under intense public scrutiny, mainly due to concerns regarding DMH - 11's potential to adversely affect the environment as well as consumer health. DMH - 11 was found not to pose any food allergy risks, and has demonstrated increased yields over existing mustard varieties. Conflicting details and results regarding the field trials and safety evaluations conducted on DMH - 11 have delayed its approval for commercial cropping.
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