Flavr Savr

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Flavr Savr (also known as CGN-89564-2; pronounced "flavor saver"), a genetically modified tomato, was the first commercially grown genetically engineered food to be granted a license for human consumption. It was developed by the Californian company Calgene in the 1980s. [1] The tomato has an improved shelf-life, increased fungal resistance and a slightly increased viscosity compared to its non-modified counterpart. [2] It was meant to be harvested ripe for increased flavor for long-distance shipping. [1] The Flavr Savr contains two genes added by Calgene; a reversed antisense polygalacturonase gene which inhibits the production of a rotting enzyme and a gene responsible for the creation of APH(3')II, [3] which confers resistance to certain aminoglycoside antibiotics including kanamycin and neomycin. [4] On May 18, 1994, [5] the FDA completed its evaluation of the Flavr Savr tomato and the use of APH(3')II, concluding that the tomato "is as safe as tomatoes bred by conventional means" and "that the use of aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase II is safe for use as a processing aid in the development of new varieties of tomato, rapeseed oil, and cotton intended for food use." It was first sold in 1994, and was only available for a few years before production ceased in 1997. [6] Calgene made history, but mounting costs prevented the company from becoming profitable, [7] and it was eventually acquired by Monsanto Company. [1]

Contents

Characteristics

Tomatoes have a short shelf-life in which they remain firm and ripe. This lifetime may be shorter than the time needed for them to reach market when shipped from winter growing areas to markets in the north, and the softening process can also lead to more of the fruit being damaged during transit. If picked while ripe, tomatoes can spoil before reaching far-away consumers due to their short lifetime. To address this, tomatoes intended for shipping are often picked while they are unripe, or "green", and then prompted to ripen just before delivery through the use of ethylene gas which acts as a plant hormone. The downside to this approach is that the tomato does not complete its natural growing process, and the final flavor suffers as a result. [8]

Through genetic engineering, Calgene hoped to slow down the ripening process of the tomato and thus prevent it from softening too early, while still allowing the tomato to retain its natural color and flavor. This would allow it to fully ripen on the vine and still be shipped long distances without it going soft. [6] Calgene scientists used the modified bacterial parasite Agrobacterium tumefaciens to transfer genetic material into Flavr Savr plant cells. The bacterium normally "infects" plants with foreign genes as a part of its life cycle. The harmful, parasitic genetic material was removed from the bacterial T-plasmid and was replaced by the favored genes. [2]

The Flavr Savr was made more resistant to rotting by the addition of an antisense gene which interferes with the production of the enzyme Beta polygalacturonase. The enzyme normally contributes to spoilage by degrading pectin in cell walls and results in the softening of fruit which makes them more susceptible to being damaged by fungal infections.

Flavr Savr turned out to disappoint researchers in that respect, as the antisensed PG gene had a positive effect on shelf life, but not on the fruit's firmness. The Flavr Savr was too soft to be reliably machine-picked and transported when harvested while ripe, so the tomatoes still had to be harvested like any other unmodified vine-ripe tomato. [9] An improved flavor, later achieved through traditional breeding of Flavr Savr and better tasting varieties, would contribute to selling Flavr Savr at a premium price at the supermarket.

The Flavr Savr also contained a kanamycin-resistance gene. This gene gave bacterial cells and chloroplasts resistance to multiple antibiotics, including kanamycin. The kanamycin-resistance gene was used during the tomato's creation phase to help scientists identify plants with the genes successfully added. Kanamycin is toxic to chloroplasts and is deadly for some plants. When researchers exposed tomato plants to high levels of kanamycin, only plants with the added genes survived. [10]

Controversy

The FDA stated that special labeling for these modified tomatoes was not necessary because they have the essential characteristics of non-modified tomatoes. Specifically, there was no evidence for health risks, and the nutritional content was unchanged. [6] According to the existing policy at the time, genetically modified products were only required to be labeled if there was a significant alteration made. [11] Most GMOs were not subjected to mandatory labeling, which allowed for the vast majority of commercially-sold genetically modified foods to remain unlabeled.

Flavr Savr tomatoes were still labeled as genetically altered, even though it was not a requirement. [1] The FDA's no-label policy was criticized because people believed that consumers deserved the right to know what was in their food. [11] [12] Safety concerns were also cited.[ citation needed ] Thousands of comments were sent to the FDA asking for a change to the labeling guidelines. [11] However, the FDA still did not implement mandatory labeling of foods derived from biotechnology until January 2022. [13]

Some did not trust the tomato's safety. Because some members of the public were misinformed on genetic technology, people feared the Flavr Savr and other genetically modified products to be potentially hazardous to human health or the environment.[ citation needed ] Some chefs and food distributors boycotted the Flavr Savr and refused to sell the tomatoes in their stores. [14] Jeremy Rifkin, an anti-biotechnology activist, said that, "It may be benign, but [the Flavr Savr] may turn out to be toxic." [1] He founded the Pure Food Campaign, which opposed the introduction of genetically-modified foods into consumer markets. [15]

Acquisition by Monsanto

Because of high research and production costs and low profits, Calgene was sold to the Monsanto Corporation in 1997 for more than $200 million. [16] [17] Monsanto acquired all of Calgene's products, including the Flavr Savr. The company was more interested in Calgene's patents to certain key technologies, and the Flavr Savr has since been shelved and is currently out of production. [1]

The failure of the Flavr Savr has been attributed to Calgene's inexperience in the business of growing and shipping tomatoes. [18]

Tomato paste

In the UK, Zeneca produced a tomato paste that used technology similar to the Flavr Savr. [19] Don Grierson was involved in the research to make the genetically modified tomato. [20] Due to the characteristics of the tomato, it was cheaper to produce than conventional tomato paste, resulting in the product being 20% cheaper. Between 1996 and 1999, 1.8 million cans, clearly labelled as genetically engineered, were sold in the major supermarket chains Sainsbury's and Safeway UK. At one point the paste outsold normal tomato paste but sales fell in the autumn of 1998.

The House of Commons of the United Kingdom published a report in which they stated that the decline in sales during this period was linked to changing consumer perceptions of genetically modified crops. [21] The report identified several possible factors, including product labeling and perception of choice, lobbying campaigns, and media attention. It concluded that the tone of media reports on the subject underwent a "fundamental shift" in response to a high-profile incident in which Dr. Arpad Pusztai, a researcher for Rowett Research Institute, was fired after making a televised claim about detrimental health effects in lab rats fed a diet of genetically modified potatoes (see the Pusztai affair). Subsequent peer review and testimony by Dr. Pusztai led the House Science and Technology Select Committee to conclude that his initial claim was "contradicted by his own evidence." In the intervening period, Sainsbury's and Safeway both pledged that none of their house brand products would contain genetically modified ingredients. [7]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biotechnology</span> Use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products

Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified maize</span> Genetically modified crop

Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified organism</span> Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering methods

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), including animals, plants, and microorganisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic engineering</span> Manipulation of an organisms genome

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.

Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food</span> Foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA

Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using various methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified crops</span> Plants used in agriculture

Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food controversies</span> Controversies over GMO food

Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals.

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The tomato is the edible berry of the plant Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato derives. Its domestication and use as a cultivated food may have originated with the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Aztecs used tomatoes in their cooking at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and after the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time after their contact with the Aztecs, they brought the plant to Europe, in a widespread transfer of plants known as the Columbian exchange. From there, the tomato was introduced to other parts of the European-colonized world during the 16th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant genetics</span> Study of genes and heredity in plants

Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in plants. It is generally considered a field of biology and botany, but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas.

The United States is the largest grower of commercial crops that have been genetically engineered in the world, but not without domestic and international opposition.

Genetically modified wheat is wheat that has been genetically engineered by the direct manipulation of its genome using biotechnology. As of 2020, no GM wheat is grown commercially, although many field tests have been conducted, with one wheat variety, Bioceres HB4 Wheat, obtaining regulatory approval from the Argentinean government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified soybean</span> Soybean that has had DNA introduced into it using genetic engineering techniques

A genetically modified soybean is a soybean that has had DNA introduced into it using genetic engineering techniques. In 1996, the first genetically modified soybean was introduced to the U.S. by Monsanto. In 2014, 90.7 million hectares of GM soybeans were planted worldwide, making up 82% of the total soybeans cultivation area.

Genetically modified canola is a genetically modified crop. The first strain, Roundup Ready canola, was developed by Monsanto for tolerance to glyphosate, the active ingredient in the commonly used herbicide Roundup.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified tomato</span> Tomato with modified genes

A genetically modified tomato, or transgenic tomato, is a tomato that has had its genes modified, using genetic engineering. The first trial genetically modified food was a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life, which was on the market briefly beginning on May 21, 1994. The first direct consumption tomato was approved in Japan in 2021. Primary work is focused on developing tomatoes with new traits like increased resistance to pests or environmental stresses. Other projects aim to enrich tomatoes with substances that may offer health benefits or be more nutritious. As well as aiming to produce novel crops, scientists produce genetically modified tomatoes to understand the function of genes naturally present in tomatoes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polygalacturonase</span>

Endo-polygalacturonase (EC 3.2.1.15, pectin depolymerase, pectolase, pectin hydrolase, and poly-α-1,4-galacturonide glycanohydrolase; systematic name (1→4)-α-D-galacturonan glycanohydrolase (endo-cleaving)) is an enzyme that hydrolyzes the α-1,4 glycosidic bonds between galacturonic acid residues:

Arctic apple is the trademark for a group of patented apples that contain a nonbrowning trait introduced through biotechnology. They were developed through a process of genetic engineering by Okanagan Specialty Fruits Inc. Specifically, gene silencing reduces the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus delaying the onset of browning. It is the first genetically engineered apple to be approved for commercial sale. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2015, and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Government of Canada in 2017, determined that Arctic apples are as safe and nutritious as conventional apples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of genetic engineering</span>

Genetic engineering is the science of manipulating genetic material of an organism. The first artificial genetic modification accomplished using biotechnology was transgenesis, the process of transferring genes from one organism to another, first accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. It was the result of a series of advancements in techniques that allowed the direct modification of the genome. Important advances included the discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases, the ability to design plasmids and technologies like polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. Transformation of the DNA into a host organism was accomplished with the invention of biolistics, Agrobacterium-mediated recombination and microinjection. The first genetically modified animal was a mouse created in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch. In 1976 the technology was commercialised, with the advent of genetically modified bacteria that produced somatostatin, followed by insulin in 1978. In 1983 an antibiotic resistant gene was inserted into tobacco, leading to the first genetically engineered plant. Advances followed that allowed scientists to manipulate and add genes to a variety of different organisms and induce a range of different effects. Plants were first commercialized with virus resistant tobacco released in China in 1992. The first genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr tomato marketed in 1994. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops. In 2000 a paper published in Science introduced golden rice, the first food developed with increased nutrient value.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified potato</span> Potato that has had its genes modified using genetic engineering

A genetically modified potato is a potato that has had its genes modified, using genetic engineering. Goals of modification include introducing pest resistance, tweaking the amounts of certain chemicals produced by the plant, and to prevent browning or bruising of the tubers. Varieties modified to produce large amounts of starches may be approved for industrial use only, not for food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GMO conspiracy theories</span> Conspiracy theories related to GMOs

GMO conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food. These conspiracy theories include claims that agribusinesses, especially Monsanto, have suppressed data showing that GMOs cause harm, deliberately cause food shortages to promote the use of GM food, or have co-opted government agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration or scientific societies such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Transcript: GMO Food Fears and the First Test Tube Tomato". Retro Report. June 24, 2013. Archived from the original on March 6, 2022. Retrieved March 6, 2022.
  2. 1 2 Redenbaugh, Keith; Bill Hiatt; Belinda Martineau; Matthew Kramer; Ray Sheehy; Rick Sanders; Cathy Houck; Don Emlay (1992). Safety Assessment of Genetically Engineered Fruits and Vegetables: A Case Study of the Flavr Savr Tomato. CRC Press. p. 288.
  3. ↑ "Agency Summary Memorandum Re: Consultation with Calgene Inc., Concerning Flavr Savr™ Tomatoes". FDA. May 17, 1994. Archived from the original on January 24, 2018. Retrieved February 17, 2022.
  4. ↑ "Code of Federal Regulations". govinfo.gov. May 1, 2009. Retrieved March 6, 2022.
  5. ↑ Stone, Brad. "The Flavr Savr Arrives" . Retrieved December 29, 2012.
  6. 1 2 3 Weasel, Lisa H. 2009. Food Fray. Amacom Publishing
  7. 1 2 The case of the FLAVR SAVR tomato July 1, 2000. G. Bruening & J.M. Lyons, California Agriculture 54(4):6-7
  8. ↑ "The Original Genetically Modified Tomato You'll Never Eat Again". Gizmodo. 24 June 2013.
  9. ↑ Martineau, Belinda. 2001. First Fruit: The Creation of the Flavr Savr Tomato and the Birth of Biotech Food. McGraw-Hill.
  10. ↑ Miller, Susan (May 27, 1994). "Genetic first upsets food lobby". New Scientist. Retrieved February 17, 2022.
  11. 1 2 3 Phillips, Susan (August 5, 1994). "Genetically Engineered Foods". CQ Researcher. 4 (29): 673–696. Retrieved 2022-03-13.
  12. ↑ "About Just Label It | Just Label It". www.justlabelit.org. Retrieved 2022-03-13.
  13. ↑ "New USDA guidance requires foods with GMO ingredients be labeled 'bioengineered'". NBC News. 10 January 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-26.
  14. ↑ "CHEFS BOYCOTT GENETICALLY ALTERED FOOD". Deseret. 1992-10-06. Retrieved 2022-03-13.
  15. ↑ Naik, Paul (1999). "Jeremy Rifkin: An Examination of the Efforts of an Anti-Biotechnology Activist" (PDF). Harvard. Retrieved March 25, 2022.
  16. ↑ "MONSANTO OFFERS $218 MILLION FOR REST OF CALGENE". The New York Times. 1997-01-29. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-05-21.
  17. ↑ "Monsanto buys Calgene - Apr. 1, 1997". money.cnn.com. Retrieved 2022-05-21.
  18. ↑ Charles, Dan. 2001. Lords of The Harvest. Perseus Publishing. 144-148.
  19. ↑ Center for Environmental Risk Assessment. "GM Crop Database:Tomato". International Life Sciences Institute. Archived from the original on July 25, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)[ dead link ]
  20. ↑ "A puree genius at his work". Times Higher Education. 1998-07-17. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  21. ↑ House of Commons Science; Technology Committee (May 18, 1999). "Scientific Advisory System: Genetically Modified Foods" . Retrieved May 4, 2011.
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