Conservation in Papua New Guinea

Last updated
Matschie's tree-kangaroo, an endangered endemic species found in Huon Peninsula Matschies tree kangaroo Dendrolagus matschiei at Bronx Zoo 1 cropped.jpg
Matschie's tree-kangaroo, an endangered endemic species found in Huon Peninsula

Papua New Guinea together with the West Papua region of Indonesia (New Guinea) make up a major tropical wilderness area that still contains 5% of the original and untouched tropical high-biodiversity terrestrial ecosystems. [1] PNG in itself contains over 5% of the world's biodiversity in less than 1% of the world's total land area. [2] The flora of New Guinea is unique because it has two sources of origin; the Gondwana flora from the south and flora with Asian origin from the west. [3] As a result, New Guinea shares major family and genera with Australia and the East Asia, but is rich in local endemic species. The endemicity is a result of mountainous isolation, topographic and soil habitat heterogeneity, high forest disturbance rates and abundant aseasonal rainfall year round. PNG boasts some 15–21,000 higher plants, 3,000 species of orchids, 800 species of coral, 600 species of fish, 250 species of mammals and 760 species of birds and 8 species of tree-kangaroos [4] out of which 84 genera of animals are endemic. Ecosystems range from lowland forests to montane forests, alpine flora down to coastal areas which contains some of the most extensive pristine mangrove areas in the world. Much of this biodiversity has remained intact for thousands of years because the ruggedness of the terrain made the interior lands inaccessible; furthermore low population density and restrictions on the effectiveness of traditional tools, ensured that these biodiversity was never overexploited.

Contents

Biodiversity value

Even though this biodiversity is on just 1% of the world land mass, it has both global and local value. Most of the ecosystem service provided by the forests and oceans (e.g. water cycling, carbon cycling) is impartial to political boundaries. New Guinea was identified as the world's most floristically diverse island in the world, with 13,634 known species of vascular plants. [5]

Within the country, about 79% [6] of the PNG population depend on the biological resource to sustain their physical, spiritual and social livelihoods. [7] [8] The biological resources are a source of food, building material, medicine for minor ailments, logs for canoes. The traditional society revered, and respected nature because it was considered a gift from some ancestor". [9] Currently, the harvesting of natural resource for export is a source of income that sustains the modern PNG economy.

Constitution

The PNG government recognized the relationship between the people and nature and at independence, provision was made in the constitution for "all necessary steps to be taken to give adequate protection to all our valued birds, animals, fish, insects, plants and trees". [10]

Legislation

Currently, biodiversity is explicitly protected by the following legislation: Fauna Act/1982, Conservation areas Act/1980, 1992, the Crocodile Trade Act/1982, and the International Trade Act/1982. [11] Legislation relevant to marine biodiversity includes the Fauna (Protection and Control) Act (1982), Fisheries (Torres Strait Protected Zone) Act (1978), the Dumping of Wastes at Sea Act (1981), the Environmental Contaminants Act (1978), and the Fisheries Management Act (1998), the Whaling Act (1974) and Prevention of Pollution of the Sea Act (1981). [12]

In February 2024 a Protected Areas Act became law. This sought to meet 30 by 30 target of protecting 30% of the country by 2030. With over 90% of Papua New Guinea being customary land, the bill allows for customary landowners to apply to have some of their land become a protected area, following which they will receive livelihood support for sustainable practices from the government. [13]

International environmental law

PNG is also a party to international environmental protection conventions and treaties. These international treaties include the International Plant Protection Convention (1951); the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other matter (1972); the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES); [14] the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1992); the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. PNG is also in partnership with other nations in the Oceania region and is a signatory to several regional conventions including, the Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (APIA Convention) and the Waigani Convention (Convention to Ban the importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous wastes within the South Pacific Region). [15]

Institutions and organisations

The Conservation and Environment Protection Authority (CEPA) which was formerly Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) until 2014 is the government agency responsible for biodiversity conservation. Its objectives, powers and authority are set out in the establishing Act, the Conservation and Environment Protection Authority Act 2014. [16] The act is expressed to bind the State of PNG (s.3).

The PNG government's effort to conserve biodiversity is supported by international environment conservation Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The major government research organizations include the Forestry Research Institute (FRI), and the National Agriculture Research Institute (NARI). The government owned universities: the University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG) and the University of Technology (UNITECH) also contribute to novel researches into the PNG biodiversity. The government research organizations tend to place emphasis on species with economical value to PNG. The NGOs, on the other hand are the driving force for biodiversity conservation for the sake of conservation. The major international NGO's assisting in biodiversity conservation include: Conservation International (CI), [17] Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), [18] World Wildlife Fund (WWF) [19] and The Nature Conservancy (TNC). [20] Some indigenous PNG NGO's remain active, including The New Guinea Binatang Research Centre (BRC) [21] (with multiple conservation partners across Madang including Wanang Conservation Area, Mt Wilhelm Conservation Area, Kau Wildlife Management Area, Ohu Conservation Area, among others), Partners with Melanesians (PwM), [22] (notably in Managalas in Oro Province and Karimui), Research and Conservation Foundation of PNG (RCF) [23] (operating primarily in Crater Mountain WMA and on environmental education), Tenkile Conservation Alliance [24] (in Sandaun Province), and PNG Institute of Biological Research, [25] but others which had active conservation programmes (Conservation Melanesia, Melanesian Environment Foundation, Village Development Trust, Pacific Heritage Foundation), have largely faded from the scene, leaving conservation today mostly to the PNG offices of the large international conservation organisations; blame for the demise of the homegrown organisations has, in at least one instance, been placed partly on the afore-mentioned international conservation organisations. [26]

Status of biodiversity protection

Lake Kutubu WMA, a wetland of international importance with 12 endemic fish species Clouds over Lake Kutubu.jpg
Lake Kutubu WMA, a wetland of international importance with 12 endemic fish species

The history of conservation efforts in PNG started in the middle of the 1800s. Since the country gained independence in 1975, the effort by the PNG government to protect biodiversity has resulted in 44 existing terrestrial protected areas using the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) categories. [27] These protected areas account for 1.6% of the total land area. A study of biodiversity identified a further 398 areas as candidates for conservation. [28] This would increase the total protected areas to 16.8% of the total country area.

Included in the PNG protected area list, but not formally recognized by IUCN is the terrestrial Wildlife Management Area (WMA). [29] WMA is an Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICAD), [30] which seeks to conserve biological diversity by involving landowners. The idea behind the project is that income generating activities, from the biological diversity would encourage people living in these areas to conserve, because such projects would link the value of these resources to living standard and also access to markets. The progress of WMA's is yet to be evaluated.

Papua New Guinea's first conservation area, the YUS Conservation Area, was established in 2009 on the Huon Peninsula, Morobe Province. [31]

Apart from local conservation efforts, PNG is also a signatory to international conventions and treaties. These international treaties include: [32] the International Plant Protection Convention (1951); the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter (1972); the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1992); the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. PNG is also in partnership with other nations in the Oceania region and is a signatory to the regional convention, The Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (APIA Convention).

PNG has two listed Ramsar sites: Lake Kutubu and Tonda Wildlife Management Area.

Challenges to the conservation efforts

Despite the provision for conservation in the legal framework, as well as interest shown by the international organizations, it is still a challenge to carry out conservation in PNG.

Land ownership issues

The land tenure, wherein the communities own 97% of the land makes it difficult for the government or any conservation organisation to procure land for conservation. The land is believed to be an inheritance from some mystical ancestor and therefore, cannot be sold to foreigners.[ citation needed ] Therefore, involving communities in Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) was identified as being compatible with the PNG land tenure system. The PNG constitution recognised this and empowered the landowners to be involved with conservation on their own land. However, the progress of WMA's is yet to be evaluated. The national government can acquire land and land leaseholds are gaining acceptance in PNG.[ citation needed ]

Economic drivers

PNG raises most of its revenue from the extraction of natural resources; as such environmental destructive developmental projects have always taken precedence over environmental protection.

Forestry

The logging industry in PNG has been identified as the main source of widespread overexploitation of forest as well as species dependent on the forests. About 23% of the 50,000-60,000 ha cleared permanently is done by industrial logging. The forest that took millions of years to evolve is deforested at an average rate of 1% per year. [33] The reluctance of government support for conservation can be seen in government documents containing recommendations which are very general with no defined goal for the future of conservation.[ citation needed ] Papua New Guinea had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.84/10, ranking it 17th globally out of 172 countries. [34]

Population growth rate

The increase in human population (3.2% children per child bearing female) [35] has increased the per capita consumption of the biological resources. For instance, the pressure to hunt big game for food has increased with the growth of population, [36] this situation is exacerbated by the fact that when these animals become rarer, their value will resulting in added pressure to acquire them. The rate and efficiency of harvesting has also increased, aided by modern and efficient harvesting implements.

Furthermore, is the misconception by the populace that natural resource is infinite. For instance, some coastal communities practice "dynamite fishing", without knowing that this practice not only kills fish and other marine organisms indiscriminately, it also destroys the coral reefs.[ citation needed ] Most coastal communities have little understanding how fish stocks are recruited and maintained in the oceans. [37] On the side of forests,

Criticism of international NGOs

There has been strong debate about whether conservation driven by international NGOs is truly sustainable in PNG; certain large integrated conservation-development projects operated by the local offices of these international NGOs has come under fire, [38] and broader complaints have surfaced. [39] The criticism is that international conservation NGOs have become corporate entities in a way that no longer mirrors the way indigenous conservation initiative has naturally evolved in countries prior to their existence. [40]

Climate change

The effects of climate change and the introduction of exotic species add another dimension onto the challenge of conservation. The potential impacts from climate change (changes in geographical range, morphology, physiology and phenology) on terrestrial species are shown to be happening elsewhere; however no formal studies have been conducted on PNG terrestrial species as yet. However, the effects of climate change are definitely showing on the coastlines. Rise in sea level is starting to displace people in low-lying islands. Furthermore, coral bleaching, an effect of high temperatures and increased carbon dioxide in oceans was observed from the PNG waters in 1996. [41]

Invasive species

In the case of the introduced species, since the 1950s, 26 species of fresh water fish were introduced into PNG, out of which 11 species are now established in the fresh water systems and competes for resources with the 214 native fresh water species. The Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromomis mossambica) was introduced in 1954, as a protein supplement. [42] Currently, the tilapia is very widespread and important as food for some communities. However, it has a negative effect on indigenous fauna in lakes and rivers because of its prolific breeding and bottom feeding habit. Furthermore, studies have shown that the over the years that there has been a decrease in the native fish catch and an increase in the introduced tilapia. [43]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental law</span> Branch of law concerning the natural environment

Environmental laws are laws that protect the environment. Environmental law is the collection of laws, regulations, agreements and common law that governs how humans interact with their environment. This includes environmental regulations; laws governing management of natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries; and related topics such as environmental impact assessments. Environmental law is seen as the body of laws concerned with the protection of living things from the harm that human activity may immediately or eventually cause to them or their species, either directly or to the media and the habits on which they depend.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Union for Conservation of Nature</span> International organization

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation in Australia</span>

Conservation in Australia is an issue of state and federal policy. Australia is one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world, with a large portion of species endemic to Australia. Preserving this wealth of biodiversity is important for future generations. 25% of Australia is managed for conservation.

This is an index of conservation topics. It is an alphabetical index of articles relating to conservation biology and conservation of the natural environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nature reserve</span> Protected area for flora, fauna or features of geological interest

A nature reserve is a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, funga, or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research. They may be designated by government institutions in some countries, or by private landowners, such as charities and research institutions. Nature reserves fall into different IUCN categories depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws. Normally it is more strictly protected than a nature park. Various jurisdictions may use other terminology, such as ecological protection area or private protected area in legislation and in official titles of the reserves.

In situ conservation is the on-site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of tree species. This process protects the inhabitants and ensures the sustainability of the environment and ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife conservation</span> Practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitats

Wildlife conservation refers to the practice of protecting wild species and their habitats in order to maintain healthy wildlife species or populations and to restore, protect or enhance natural ecosystems. Major threats to wildlife include habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation, overexploitation, poaching, pollution, climate change, and the illegal wildlife trade. The IUCN estimates that 42,100 species of the ones assessed are at risk for extinction. Expanding to all existing species, a 2019 UN report on biodiversity put this estimate even higher at a million species. It is also being acknowledged that an increasing number of ecosystems on Earth containing endangered species are disappearing. To address these issues, there have been both national and international governmental efforts to preserve Earth's wildlife. Prominent conservation agreements include the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). There are also numerous nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) dedicated to conservation such as the Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and Conservation International.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation status</span> Indication of the chance of extinction

The conservation status of a group of organisms indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status: not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels, as well as for consumer use such as sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification. The two international systems are by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation International</span> Nonprofit environmental organization

Conservation International (CI) is an American nonprofit environmental organization headquartered in Crystal City, Virginia, in Arlington County, Virginia.

<i>Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999</i> Environmental law in Australia

The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999(Cth) is an Act of the Parliament of Australia that provides a framework for protection of the Australian environment, including its biodiversity and its natural and culturally significant places. Enacted on 17 July 2000, it established a range of processes to help protect and promote the recovery of threatened species and ecological communities, and preserve significant places from decline. The Act is as of June 2020 administered by the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. Lists of threatened species are drawn up under the Act, and these lists, the primary reference to threatened species in Australia, are available online through the Species Profile and Threats Database (SPRAT).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife of India</span> Wildlife of India

India is one of the most biodiverse regions and is home to a large variety of wildlife. It is one of the 17 megadiverse countries and includes three of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots – the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the Indo-Burma hotspot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation in Belize</span>

Since declaring independence in 1981, Belize has enacted many environmental protection laws aimed at the preservation of the country's natural and cultural heritage, as well as its wealth of natural resources. These acts have established a number of different types of protected areas, with each category having its own set of regulations dictating public access, resource extraction, land use and ownership.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife of Canada</span> Overview of the wildlife of Canada

The wildlife of Canada or biodiversity of Canada consist of over 80,000 classified species, and an equal number thought yet to be recognized. Known fauna and flora have been identified from five kingdoms: protozoa represent approximately 1% of recorded species; chromist ; fungis ; plants ; and animals. Insects account for nearly 70 percent of documented animal species in Canada. More than 300 species are found exclusively in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Sri Lanka</span>

Deforestation is one of the most serious environmental issues in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka's current forest cover as of 2017 was 29.7%. In the 1920s, the island had a 49 percent forest cover but by 2005 this had fallen by approximately 26 percent. Between 1990 and 2000, Sri Lanka lost an average of 26,800 ha of forests per year. This amounts to an average annual deforestation rate of 1.14%. Between 2000 and 2005 the rate accelerated to 1.43% per annum. However, with a long history of policy and laws towards environmental protection, deforestation rates of primary cover have decreased 35% since the end of the 1990s thanks to a strong history of conservation measures. The problem of deforestation in Sri Lanka is not as significant in the southern mountainous regions as it is in northern and lowland southern Sri Lanka, largely due to the nature of environmental protection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tonda Wildlife Management Area</span>

The Tonda Wildlife Management Area is a wetland of international importance and the largest protected area in Papua New Guinea. It is located in the south-western corner of the Western Province and is contiguous with Wasur National Park of Indonesia. It forms part of the Trans Fly savanna and grasslands ecoregion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Papua New Guinea</span>

Deforestation in Papua New Guinea has been extensive and in recent decades from 2001 to 2020, Papua New Guinea (PNG) lost 1.57Mha of tree cover, equivalent to a 3.7% decrease in tree cover since 2000, and 1.15Gt of CO₂e emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Index of biodiversity articles</span>

This is a list of topics in biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Miriam Supuma</span> Papua New Guinean conservationist

Miriam Supuma is a conservationist in Papua New Guinea (PNG). She was the co-founder and co-director of the PNG Institute of Biological Research (PNGIBR), a scientific research NGO. Her field research has centred around Birds of Paradise, particularly in relation to the use of their feathers for traditional adornment by people in the highlands of PNG.

References

  1. ↑ Mittermeier, Russell A.; Myers, Norman; Thomsen, Jorgen B.; da Fonseca, Gustavo A. B.; Olivieri, Silvio (1998). "Biodiversity Hotspots and Major Tropical Wilderness Areas: Approaches to Setting Conservation Priorities". Conservation Biology . 12 (3). Society for Conservation Biology: 516–20. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003516.x. ISSN   1523-1739. JSTOR   2387233. S2CID   85717165.
  2. ↑ AUSAID, 2005, Australian Government Overseas Aid Available at "About Papua New Guinea". Archived from the original on 2011-05-18. Retrieved 2011-05-05.
  3. ↑ Beehler B.M 1993 (ed) Papua New Guinea Conservation needs analysis Volume 2, Papua New Guinea Department of Environment and Conservation.
  4. ↑ Newell G.R., 1999. Australia's tree-kangaroos: current issues in their conservation. Biological Conservation, Elsevier Science 87, (1), pp: 1-12. Available online,
  5. ↑ Cámara-Leret; Frodin; Adema (2020). "New Guinea has the world's richest island flora". Nature. 584 (7822): 579–583. Bibcode:2020Natur.584..579C. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2549-5. PMID   32760001. S2CID   220980697.
  6. ↑ Papua New Guinea Development Report, Office of national Planning, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, 1998 [ permanent dead link ]
  7. ↑ Sillitoe P., 2001, Hunting for Conservation in the Papua New Guinea Highlands. Routledge 66, (3)365–393 http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/media/mgljqklxtkvm6334gt7r/contributions/y/f/r/g/yfrg153q210t7f08.pdf
  8. ↑ Kwapena, N. 1984. Traditional conservation and utilization of wildlife in Papua New Guinea. Environmentalist 4, supplement 7:22–26
  9. ↑ Sillitoe, P. 1999. Beating the boundaries: Land tenure and identity in the Papua New Guinea Highlands. Journal of Anthropological Research, 55(3), 331-383.
  10. ↑ Ericho J. 1998. Lessons from Crater Mountain ICAD Project and Some Suggestions. (Eds Saulei M.A and Elis J). The Reports of Matupore Conference: ICAD Practitioners' views from the field. DEC and UNDP Rome: 168-173
  11. ↑ JICA, 2002. Country Profile on Environment in Papua New Guinea Planning and Evaluation Department Japan International Development Cooperation Agency. Available at http://www.jica.go.jp/english/global/env/profiles/pdf/02.pdf Archived 2006-10-08 at the Wayback Machine )
  12. ↑ SPREP. PNG Environment Legislation (provisional review) (PDF). SPREP. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  13. ↑ Spoorthy Raman (12 April 2024). "Conservationists welcome new PNG Protected Areas Act — but questions remain". Mongabay. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
  14. ↑ PNG Joined by Accession on 12/12/1975, Entry into force 11/03/1976, CITES Secretariat, List of Contracting Parties, https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.php
  15. ↑ Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme. "Waigani Convention". SPREP. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  16. ↑ CEPA Act 2014. "Conservation and Environment Protection Act of 2014 (as made)" (PDF). PNG CEPA. National Parliament. Retrieved 12 May 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Conservation International Archived 2006-10-06 at the Wayback Machine ,
  18. ↑ "Wildlife Conservation Society". Archived from the original on 2006-12-30. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  19. ↑ World Wildlife Fund Archived 2007-01-01 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ↑ "The Nature Conservancy". Archived from the original on 2006-11-19. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  21. ↑ The Binatang Research Centre
  22. ↑ "Partners with Melanesians, Inc". 19 July 2009.
  23. ↑ http://www.rcf.org.pg Archived 2013-11-01 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ↑ "Tenkile Conservation Alliance | Community | Conservation | Culture | PNG". Archived from the original on 2019-05-26. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  25. ↑ "Home". pngibr.org.
  26. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-08. Retrieved 2010-06-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  27. ↑ "Microsoft Word - protected_areas_notes formatted final.doc" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  28. ↑ Nix, H.A., D.P. Faith, M.F. Hutchinson, C.R. Margules, J. West, A. Allison, J.L. Kesteven, G. Natera, W. Slater, J.L. Stein, and P. Walker, 2000. 'The BioRap Toolbox: A National Study of Biodiversity Assessment and Planning for Papua New Guinea.' Canberra: CSIRO Press.
  29. ↑ "bio_cou_598.xls" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-16. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  30. ↑ West, P. 2006. Environmental conservation and mining: Between experience and expectations in the Eastern highlands province. The Contemporary Pacific 18:295-313.
  31. ↑ Conservation International: YUS, retrieved 19 May 2010
  32. ↑ Convention on Biodiversity
  33. ↑ "www.mongabay.com". Archived from the original on 2010-12-25. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
  34. ↑ Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen, P. R.; Ervin, J.; Franco, P.; Goldman, E.; Goetz, S.; Hansen, A.; Hofsvang, E.; Jantz, P.; Jupiter, S.; Kang, A.; Langhammer, P.; Laurance, W. F.; Lieberman, S.; Linkie, M.; Malhi, Y.; Maxwell, S.; Mendez, M.; Mittermeier, R.; Murray, N. J.; Possingham, H.; Radachowsky, J.; Saatchi, S.; Samper, C.; Silverman, J.; Shapiro, A.; Strassburg, B.; Stevens, T.; Stokes, E.; Taylor, R.; Tear, T.; Tizard, R.; Venter, O.; Visconti, P.; Wang, S.; Watson, J. E. M. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   7723057 . PMID   33293507.
  35. ↑ "Papua New Guinea Statistics Office - Population and Social Statistics". Archived from the original on 2006-09-25. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
  36. ↑ Dwyer, Peter D. (1983). "Etolo hunting performance and energetics". Human Ecology. 11 (2): 145–174. doi:10.1007/BF00891741. S2CID   83702617.
  37. ↑ Foale, S and Manele B 2004, Social and political barriers to the use of Marine protected Areas for conservation and fishery management in Melanesia. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, Vol 45, # 3 pp373-386
  38. ↑ Dowie, Mark. "Wrong Path to Conservation in Papua New Guinea | The Nation". Archived from the original on 5 February 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2018.
  39. ↑ "07/04/03 -- People against Foreign NGO Neocolonialism: Unheard Rainforest". Archived from the original on 2010-03-27. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
  40. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-30. Retrieved 2010-03-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  41. ↑ Davies, J.M, Dunne R.P, Brown, E.B, 1997, Coral bleaching and elevated sea-water temperature in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea, 1996, Mar. Freshwater Res., 1997, 48, 513–6
  42. ↑ Coates, D 1989. Review of Aquaculture and Freshwater Fisheries in Papua New Guinea. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Rome
  43. ↑ Dudgeon, D 1994. The influence of riparian vegetation on macroinvertebrate community structure and functional organization in six new Guinea streams Hydrobiologia 294 : 6 5-85
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.