Economics of biodiversity

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The biodiversity of the Masai Mara nature reserve in Kenya is a tourist attraction MasaiMaraCheetahs01.jpg
The biodiversity of the Masai Mara nature reserve in Kenya is a tourist attraction

Biodiversity plays an essential role in the global economy. [1] This includes its role in providing ecosystem services - the benefits that humans get from ecosystems. Biodiversity plays a major role in the productivity and functioning of ecosystems, affects their ability to provide ecosystem services. [2] For example, biodiversity is a source of food, medication, and materials used in industry. Recreation and tourism are also examples of human economic activities that rely on these benefits. In 2018, the WWF Living Planet Report estimated that ecosystem services contributed US$125 trillion a year to the global economy. [3]

Contents

The benefits of biodiversity are often evaluated in an anthropocentric way and the inherent value of biodiversity, outside of its benefits to humanity, has been debated by economists. [4] [5] Despite these benefits, economic activities often result in harm to biodiversity, such as through deforestation. [1]

The majority of species have yet to be evaluated for their current or future economic importance. [6] Raw materials, pharmaceuticals and drug production all directly and indirectly depend upon biodiversity. [6]

Food

Biodiversity provides high variety of food: crops, livestock, forestry, and fish are important food source of human species. However, the number of species have been domesticated and cultivated are small if comparing with the number of species existing. Wild species and varieties can supply genes for improving domesticated species by improving their yield, disease resistance, tolerance and vigor; this can increase the profit of farming.

Biological pest control

A ladybird larva eating aphids Ladybird aphid 7462.jpg
A ladybird larva eating aphids

An important ecosystem function associated with biodiversity is pest control. [7] Control species can suppress pest populations and reduce loss of crop yields without the negative impacts of chemical pesticides. [8] This has economic benefits and maintaining natural pest control is important to humanity's ability to grow crops. [9] It can also be applied within horticulture. [10]

Biological pest control can reduce economic losses incurred as a result of pests, disease vectors, and invasive species. [11] However, its use can have unintended effects where control species are introduced without adequate research. [12] For example, the cane toad was introduced to Queensland, Australia in 1935 to control cane beetles that attack sugarcane roots but are now regarded as an invasive species through their damaging impacts on native species. [12] [13]

Medication

A wide variety of plants, animals and fungi are used as medicine. Wild plant species have been used for medicinal purposes since before the beginning of recorded history. Over 60% of world population depends on the plant medicines for their primary health care. [14] For example, quinine comes from the cinchona tree has been used to treat malaria, digitalis from the foxglove plant treats chronic heart trouble, and morphine from the poppy plant gives pain relief.

According to the National Cancer Institute, over 70% of the promising anti-cancer drugs come from plants in the tropical rainforests. It is estimated that of the 250,000 known plant species, only 5,000 have been researched for possible medical applications. Ethnopharmacy is the branch of science that investigates traditional medicines.

Animals may also play a role, in particular in research. In traditional remedies, animals are extensively used as drugs. Many animals also medicate themselves. Zoopharmacognosy is the study of how animals use plants, insects and other inorganic materials in self-medicatation. In an interview with the late Neil Campbell, Eloy Rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity:

"Some of the compounds we've identified by zoopharmacognosy kill parasitic worms, and some of these chemicals may be useful against tumors. There is no question that the templates for most drugs are in the natural world." [15]

Industry

For example, fibers for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Biodiversity may be a source of energy (such as biomass). Other industrial products are oils, lubricants, perfumes, fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons, and cork, which can all be derived from various plant species. Supplies from animal origin include wool, silk, fur, leather, lubricants, and waxes.

Animals may also be used as a mode of transport.

Biological material can provide models for many industrial materials and structures. For example, the inspiration for the infrared sensor came from the thermosensitive pit organ of rattlesnake. The modelling is considered as Biomimicry.

Horticulture

Horticulture refers to the small-scale cultivation of plants, such as for use in gardening or landscaping. These plants may be used for food, medicine, or aesthetic and ornamental purposes. [16] Horticultural plant biodiversity is important to the economy. For example, in the UK, growth of ornamental plants was worth £1.7 billion in 2023. [17]

Tourism and recreation

Through cultural ecosystem services, biodiversity provides economic benefits in the form of recreation and tourism, while also benefitting human wellbeing. [18] [19] Biodiversity influences the potential of ecosystems to provide recreational services. [20] This includes outdoor recreation, such as hiking, hunting, fishing, and wildlife watching.

Sumidero Canyon Ecological Reserve in Sumidero Canyon -- in the state of Chiapas, Southwestern Mexico. Sumidero ecotourism reserve.JPG
Sumidero Canyon Ecological Reserve in Sumidero Canyon — in the state of Chiapas, Southwestern Mexico.

Another form of recreation supported by biodiversity is tourism. Biodiversity is "at the heart of what drives the tourism industry", according to the United Nations Environment Programme. [21] The beauty of tourist destinations or the species they support can attract tourists to visit certain areas. [22] For example, destinations like rainforests, beaches, national parks, and nature reserves are attractive to tourists. The revenue generated through tourism is vital to many economies worldwide. [23]

Nature-based tourism, such as to visit protected areas, also has an important economic impact. [24] For example, ecotourism, where the motivation of tourists is to observe and appreciate nature and the cultures in natural areas, while supporting their maintenance. [25] In 2023, the global ecotourism market was estimated to be worth US$216.49 billion. [26]

Despite the economic benefits from biodiversity through tourism, the tourism industry has negative impacts on biodiversity. [22] For example, through habitat destruction and pollution. As a result, sustainable tourism emerged with the aim of reducing the negative impacts of tourism on the environment. [27]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Overgrazing</span> When plants are grazed for extended periods without sufficient recovery time

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature reserves. It can also be caused by immobile, travel restricted populations of native or non-native wild animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity</span> Variety and variability of life forms

Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than one-fifth of Earth's terrestrial area and contain about 50% of the world's species. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity for both marine and terrestrial taxa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invasive species</span> Non-native organism causing damage to an established environment

An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native species that become harmful to their native environment after human alterations to its food web. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become a serious economic, social, and environmental threat worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecotourism</span> Tourism visiting environments

Ecotourism is a form of tourism marketed as "responsible" travel to natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local people. The stated purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds for ecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and human rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biological pest control</span> Controlling pests using other organisms

Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, whether pest animals such as insects and mites, weeds, or pathogens affecting animals or plants by using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation biology</span> Study of threats to biological diversity

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat conservation</span> Management practice for protecting types of environments

Habitat conservation is a management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore habitats and prevent species extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range. It is a priority of many groups that cannot be easily characterized in terms of any one ideology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Introduced species</span> Species introduced by human activity

An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived there by human activity, directly or indirectly, and either deliberately or accidentally. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are considered naturalized. The process of human-caused introduction is distinguished from biological colonization, in which species spread to new areas through "natural" (non-human) means such as storms and rafting. The Latin expression neobiota captures the characteristic that these species are new biota to their environment in terms of established biological network relationships. Neobiota can further be divided into neozoa and neophyta (plants).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invasive species in Australia</span>

Invasive species in Australia are a serious threat to the native biodiversity, and an ongoing cost to Australian agriculture. Numerous species arrived with European maritime exploration and colonisation of Australia and steadily since then.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural biodiversity</span> Agricultural concept

Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is a subset of general biodiversity pertaining to agriculture. It can be defined as "the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures, functions and processes in and around production systems, and that provide food and non-food agricultural products.” It is managed by farmers, pastoralists, fishers and forest dwellers, agrobiodiversity provides stability, adaptability and resilience and constitutes a key element of the livelihood strategies of rural communities throughout the world. Agrobiodiversity is central to sustainable food systems and sustainable diets. The use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to food security, nutrition security, and livelihood security, and it is critical for climate adaptation and climate mitigation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat destruction</span> Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species

Habitat destruction occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem service</span> Benefits provided by healthy nature, forests and environmental systems

Ecosystem services are the various benefits that humans derive from healthy ecosystems. These ecosystems, when functioning well, offer such things as provision of food, natural pollination of crops, clean air and water, decomposition of wastes, or flood control. Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are provisioning services, such as the production of food and water. Regulating services, such as the control of climate and disease. Supporting services, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production. And finally there are cultural services, such as spiritual and recreational benefits. Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them.

Food biodiversity is defined as "the diversity of plants, animals and other organisms used for food, covering the genetic resources within species, between species and provided by ecosystems."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecotourism in South Africa</span>

Ecotourism is the concept of responsible trips and travel to areas that might be protected and especially fragile. The intent is to create as little detrimental impact on the environment as possible. South Africa has used ecotourism to sustain and improve its immense biodiversity, as well as invigorate its economy. Tourism is the fourth largest generator of foreign exchange in South Africa, and ecotourism is the idea of encouraging visitors while promoting and supporting a country's biodiversity. South Africa contains a lot of biodiversity, and so ecotourism is a way for the country to benefit from wildlife in a non-consumptive and legal manner as opposed to illegal activities like poaching and trafficking for the international wildlife trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity in agriculture</span> Increasing biodiversity in agriculture

Biodiversity in agriculture is the measure of biodiversity found on agricultural land. Biodiversity is the total diversity of species present in an area at all levels of biological organization. It is characterized by heterogeneous habitats that support the diverse ecological structure. In agricultural areas, biodiversity decreases as varying landscapes are lost and native plants are replaced with cultivated crops. Increasing biodiversity in agriculture can increase the sustainability of farms through the restoration of ecosystem services that aid in regulating agricultural lands. Biodiversity in agriculture can be increased through the process of agroecological restoration, as farm biodiversity is an aspect of agroecology.

The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Though some pastoralism is environmentally positive, modern animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural pollution</span> Type of pollution caused by agriculture

Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of sources, ranging from point source water pollution to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as non-point source pollution and air pollution. Once in the environment these pollutants can have both direct effects in surrounding ecosystems, i.e. killing local wildlife or contaminating drinking water, and downstream effects such as dead zones caused by agricultural runoff is concentrated in large water bodies.

Akure Forest Reserve is a protected area in southwest Nigeria, covering 66 km2 (25 sq mi). The Akure Forest Reserve, established in 1948 and spanning approximately 32 hectares. It was created with the primary aim of safeguarding the genetic diversity of the forest ecosystem. About 11.73% is estimated to be cleared for cocoa farming and other food crops. Aponmu and Owena Yoruba speaking communities owned the forest, though, there are also minor settlements surrounding the forest. They include Ipogun, Kajola/ Aponmu, Kajola, Ago Petesi, Akika Camp, Owena Town, Ibutitan/Ilaro Camp, Elemo Igbara Oke Camp and Owena Water new Dam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity loss</span> Extinction of species or loss of species in a given habitat

Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth (extinction) or when there is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration. If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push the planetary boundaries too far. These activities include habitat destruction and land use intensification. Further problem areas are air and water pollution, over-exploitation, invasive species and climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and invasive species</span> Increase of invasive organisms caused by climate change

Climate change and invasive species refers to the process of the environmental destabilization caused by climate change. This environmental change facilitates the spread of invasive species — species that are not historically found in a certain region, and often bring about a negative impact to that region's native species. This complex relationship is notable because climate change and invasive species are also considered by the USDA to be two of the top four causes of global biodiversity loss.

References

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  2. ↑ Tilman, David; Isbell, Forest; Cowles, Jane M. (2014-11-23). "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 45 (1): 471–493. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091917. ISSN   1543-592X.
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  4. ↑ Gómez-Baggethun, Erik; de Groot, Rudolf; Lomas, Pedro L.; Montes, Carlos (2009-12-13). "The history of ecosystem services in economic theory and practice: From early notions to markets and payment schemes". Ecological Economics. 69 (6): 1209–1218. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11.007.
  5. ↑ Seddon, Nathalie; Mace, Georgina M.; Naeem, Shahid; Tobias, Joseph A.; Pigot, Alex L.; Cavanagh, Rachel; Mouillot, David; Vause, James; Walpole, Matt (2016-11-01). "Biodiversity in the Anthropocene: prospects and policy". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 283 (1844): 20162094. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.2094. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   5204156 . PMID   27928040.
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  14. ↑ Kevin J. Gaston & John I. Spicer. 2004. Biodiversity: an introduction, Blackwell Publishing. 2nd Ed. ISBN   1-4051-1857-1
  15. ↑ Campbell, N. A. (1996) Biology (4th edition). Benjamin Cummings NY. p.23 ISBN   0-8053-1957-3
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  20. ↑ Mancini, Francesca; Coghill, George M.; Lusseau, David (2019-01-31). Wiersma, Yolanda (ed.). "Quantifying wildlife watchers' preferences to investigate the overlap between recreational and conservation value of natural areas". Journal of Applied Ecology. 56 (2): 387–397. Bibcode:2019JApEc..56..387M. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.13274. hdl:2164/13130. ISSN   0021-8901.
  21. ↑ "No guilt trips: Tourism is part of the solution for nature". Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved 2024-07-19.
  22. 1 2 Jones, Peter (2022-08-25). "Tourism and Biodiversity: A Paradoxical Relationship" (PDF). Athens Journal of Tourism. 9 (3): 151–162. doi:10.30958/ajt.9-3-2.
  23. ↑ Naseem, Sana (2021-08-18). "The Role of Tourism in Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence from Saudi Arabia". Economies. 9 (3): 117. doi: 10.3390/economies9030117 . ISSN   2227-7099.
  24. ↑ Gupta, Anubhab; Zhu, Heng; Bhammar, Hasita; Earley, Elisabeth; Filipski, Mateusz; Narain, Urvashi; Spencer, Phoebe; Whitney, Edward; Taylor, J. Edward (2023). "Economic impact of nature-based tourism". PLOS ONE. 18 (4): e0282912. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1882912G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282912 . PMC   10096494 . PMID   37043462.
  25. ↑ "Ecotourism and Protected areas | UN Tourism". www.unwto.org. Retrieved 2024-07-19.
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  27. ↑ Baloch, Qadar Bakhsh; Shah, Syed Naseeb; Iqbal, Nadeem; Sheeraz, Muhammad; Asadullah, Muhammad; Mahar, Sourath; Khan, Asia Umar (2023). "Impact of tourism development upon environmental sustainability: A suggested framework for sustainable ecotourism". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30 (3): 5917–5930. Bibcode:2023ESPR...30.5917B. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-22496-w. PMC   9389488 . PMID   35984561.
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