Biodiversity and drugs

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Biodiversity plays a vital role in maintaining human and animal health because numerous plants, animals, and fungi are used in medicine to produce vital vitamins, painkillers, antibiotics, and other medications. [1] [2] [3] Natural products have been recognized and used as medicines by ancient cultures all around the world. [4] Some animals are also known to self-medicate using plants and other materials available to them. [5]

Contents

Plant drugs

Many plant species have been studied thoroughly for their value as a source of medicine. [6] [7] They have a wide range of benefits such as anti-fever and anti-inflammatory properties, can treat diseases such as malaria and diabetes, and are used as vitamins and antibiotic and antifungal medications. [7] [8] [9] [10] More than 60% of the world's population relies almost entirely on plant medicine for primary health care, [11] and about 119 pure chemicals such as caffeine, methyl salicylate, and quinine are extracted from less than 90 species of higher plants and used as medicines throughout the world. [4]

In China, Japan, India, and Germany, there is a great deal of interest in and support for the search for new drugs from higher plants. [4] For example, the Herbalome Project was launched in China in 2008 and aims to use high throughput sequencing and toxicity testing to identify active components in traditional herbal remedies. [12]

Sweet Wormwood

Sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua) Sweet wormwood (lat. Artemisia annua).jpg
Sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua)

Sweet Wormwood ( Artemisia annua ) grows in all continents besides Antarctica. [13] It is the only known source of artemisinin, a drug that has been used to treat fevers due to malaria, exhaustion, or many other causes, since ancient times. [14] Upon further study, scientists have found that Sweet Wormwood inhibits activity of various bacteria, viruses, and parasites and exhibits anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. [14] [15] [16]

Animal-derived drugs

Animal-derived drugs are a major source of modern medications used around the world. [2] [17] The use of these drugs can cause certain animals to become endangered or threatened; however, it is difficult to identify the animal species used in medicine since animal-derived drugs are often processed, which degrades their DNA. [2]

Medicinal Animal Horns and Shells

Cells from animal horns and shells are included in a group of medications call Medicinal Animal Horns and Shells (MAHS). [2] [18] These drugs are often used in dermatology and have been reported to have anti-fever and anti-inflammatory properties and treat some diseases. [18] [19]

Drugs derived from animal toxins

The shell of a cone snail (Conus magus). Conus magus 001.jpg
The shell of a cone snail (Conus magus).

Certain animals have obtained many adaptations of toxic substances due to a coevolutionary arms race between them and their predators. [20] Some components of these toxins such as enzymes and inorganic salts are used in modern medicine. [21] For example, drugs such as Captopril and Lisinopril are derived from snake venom and inhibit the angiotensin-converting enzyme. [22] [21] Another example is Ziconotide, a drug from the cone snail, Conus magus , that is used to reduce pain. [21] [23]

Medicinal fungi

Edible fungi can contain important nutrients and biomolecules that can be used for medical applications. [3] For example, medicinal fungi have polysaccharides that can be used to prevent the spread of cancer by activating different types of immune cells (namely T lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells), which inhibit cancer cell reproduction and metastasis (the process by which cancer can spread to different parts of the body). [3] [24]

Fungi have been used to make many antibiotics since Sir Alexander Flemming discovered Penicillin from the mold, Penicillium notatum. [25] [26] Recently, there has been a renewed interest in using fungi to create antibiotics since many bacteria have obtained antibiotic resistance due to the heavy selection pressures that antibiotics cause. [25] The diversity of marine fungi makes them a potential new source of antibiotic compunds; however, most are difficult to cultivate in a laboratory setting. [25] [27]

Countries in Asia such as Egypt and China have been using fungi for medical uses for centuries. [3] [24]

Turkey Tail Mushrooms

Turkey tail mushrooms found in Georgia, USA. Turkey tail.jpg
Turkey tail mushrooms found in Georgia, USA.

Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by an infection by the parasite: Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). [28] [29] Current drugs used to treat this disease have many side effects and do not inhibit all forms of T. gondii. [30] An in vitro study by Sharma et al. suggests that Turkey Tail mushroom extract could be used to treat Toxoplasmosis since it inhibited T. gondii growth. [28]

Pestalone

Pestalone is an antibiotic created from the marine fungus: Pestalotia sp. [25] [31] M. Cueto et al. (2001–11) found that it has antibiotic activity against two bacteria species that have gained resistance to antibiotics: vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . [32]

Zoopharmacognosy

Apes and monkeys are an example of animals using plants as medicine rather than food. Lightmatter chimpanzee2.jpg
Apes and monkeys are an example of animals using plants as medicine rather than food.

Zoopharmacognosy is the study of how animals select certain plants as self-medication to treat or prevent disease. [5] Usually, this behavior is a result of coevolution between the animal and the plant that it uses for self-medication. [5] For example, apes have been observed selecting a particular part of a medicinal plant by taking off leaves and breaking the stem to suck out the juice. [33] In an interview with the late Neil Campbell, Eloy Rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity:

"Some of the compounds we've identified by zoopharmacognosy kill parasitic worms, and some of these chemicals may be useful against tumors. There is no question that the templates for most drugs are in the natural world." [33]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antibiotic</span> Antimicrobial substance active against bacteria

An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the ones which cause the common cold or influenza; drugs which inhibit growth of viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics. They are also not effective against fungi; drugs which inhibit growth of fungi are called antifungal drugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antimicrobial resistance</span> Resistance of microbes to drugs directed against them

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from the effects of antimicrobials. All classes of microbes can evolve resistance to the point that one or more drugs used to fight them are no longer effective. Fungi evolve antifungal resistance, viruses evolve antiviral resistance, protozoa evolve antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria evolve antibiotic resistance. Together all of these come under the umbrella of antimicrobial resistance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxoplasmosis</span> Protozoan parasitic disease

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan. Infections with toxoplasmosis are associated with a variety of neuropsychiatric and behavioral conditions. Occasionally, people may have a few weeks or months of mild, flu-like illness such as muscle aches and tender lymph nodes. In a small number of people, eye problems may develop. In those with a weak immune system, severe symptoms such as seizures and poor coordination may occur. If a woman becomes infected during pregnancy, a condition known as congenital toxoplasmosis may affect the child.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chitin</span> Long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine

Chitin (C8H13O5N)n ( KY-tin) is a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chitin are produced each year in the biosphere. It is a primary component of cell walls in fungi (especially filamentous and mushroom forming fungi), the exoskeletons of arthropods such as crustaceans and insects, the radulae, cephalopod beaks and gladii of molluscs and in some nematodes and diatoms. It is also synthesised by at least some fish and lissamphibians. Commercially, chitin is extracted from the shells of crabs, shrimps, shellfish and lobsters, which are major by-products of the seafood industry. The structure of chitin is comparable to cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. It is functionally comparable to the protein keratin. Chitin has proved useful for several medicinal, industrial and biotechnological purposes.

<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> Species of protozoan parasite

Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protozoan that causes toxoplasmosis. Found worldwide, T. gondii is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, but felids are the only known definitive hosts in which the parasite may undergo sexual reproduction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary metabolite</span> Type of organic compound

Secondary metabolites, also called specialised metabolites, toxins, secondary products, or natural products, are organic compounds produced by any lifeform, e.g. bacteria, fungi, animals, or plants, which are not directly involved in the normal growth, development, or reproduction of the organism. Instead, they generally mediate ecological interactions, which may produce a selective advantage for the organism by increasing its survivability or fecundity. Specific secondary metabolites are often restricted to a narrow set of species within a phylogenetic group. Secondary metabolites often play an important role in plant defense against herbivory and other interspecies defenses. Humans use secondary metabolites as medicines, flavourings, pigments, and recreational drugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug discovery</span> Pharmaceutical procedure

In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new candidate medications are discovered.

Self-medication, sometime called do-it-yourself (DIY) medicine, is a human behavior in which an individual uses a substance or any exogenous influence to self-administer treatment for physical or psychological conditions, for example headaches or fatigue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharmacognosy</span> Study of plants as a source of drugs

Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs obtained from medicinal plants, animals, fungi, and other natural sources. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical, and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".

<i>Artemisia annua</i> Herb known as sweet wormwood used to treat malaria

Artemisia annua, also known as sweet wormwood, sweet annie, sweet sagewort, annual mugwort or annual wormwood, is a common type of wormwood native to temperate Asia, but naturalized in many countries including scattered parts of North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemisinin</span> Group of drugs used against malaria

Artemisinin and its semisynthetic derivatives are a group of drugs used in the treatment of malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum. It was discovered in 1972 by Tu Youyou, who shared the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are now standard treatment worldwide for P. falciparum malaria as well as malaria due to other species of Plasmodium. Artemisinin is extracted from the plant Artemisia annua an herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine. A precursor compound can be produced using a genetically engineered yeast, which is much more efficient than using the plant.

An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms (microbicide) or stops their growth. Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against. For example, antibiotics are used against bacteria, and antifungals are used against fungi. They can also be classified according to their function. The use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy, while the use of antimicrobial medicines to prevent infection is known as antimicrobial prophylaxis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chitosan</span> Chemical compound

Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1→4)-linked D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. It is made by treating the chitin shells of shrimp and other crustaceans with an alkaline substance, such as sodium hydroxide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opportunistic infection</span> Infection caused by pathogens that take advantage of an opportunity not normally available

An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by pathogens that take advantage of an opportunity not normally available. These opportunities can stem from a variety of sources, such as a weakened immune system, an altered microbiome, or breached integumentary barriers. Many of these pathogens do not necessarily cause disease in a healthy host that has a non-compromised immune system, and can, in some cases, act as commensals until the balance of the immune system is disrupted. Opportunistic infections can also be attributed to pathogens which cause mild illness in healthy individuals but lead to more serious illness when given the opportunity to take advantage of an immunocompromised host.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoopharmacognosy</span> Self-medication by animals

Zoopharmacognosy is a behaviour in which non-human animals self-medicate by selecting and ingesting or topically applying plants, soils and insects with medicinal properties, to prevent or reduce the harmful effects of pathogens, toxins, and even other animals. The term derives from Greek roots zoo ("animal"), pharmacon, and gnosy ("knowing").

Pharmacotherapy, also known as pharmacological therapy or drug therapy, is defined as medical treatment that utilizes one or more pharmaceutical drugs to improve ongoing symptoms, treat the underlying condition, or act as a prevention for other diseases (prophylaxis).

In biology, a pathogen, in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ.

Medicinal fungi are fungi that contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites through biotechnology to develop prescription drugs. Compounds successfully developed into drugs or under research include antibiotics, anti-cancer drugs, cholesterol and ergosterol synthesis inhibitors, psychotropic drugs, immunosuppressants and fungicides.

Chitosan-poly is a composite that has been increasingly used to create chitosan-poly(acrylic acid) nanoparticles. More recently, various composite forms have come out with poly(acrylic acid) being synthesized with chitosan which is often used in a variety of drug delivery processes. Chitosan which already features strong biodegradability and biocompatibility nature can be merged with polyacrylic acid to create hybrid nanoparticles that allow for greater adhesion qualities as well as promote the biocompatibility and homeostasis nature of chitosan poly(acrylic acid) complex. The synthesis of this material is essential in various applications and can allow for the creation of nanoparticles to facilitate a variety of dispersal and release behaviors and its ability to encapsulate a multitude of various drugs and particles.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 Luo, Jiaoyang; Yan, Dan; Zhang, Da; Han, Yumei; Dong, Xiaoping; Yang, Yong; Deng, Kejun; Xiao, Xiaohe (2011-09-09). "Application of 12S rRNA Barcodes for the Identification of Animal-Derived Drugs". Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences. 14 (3): 358. doi: 10.18433/j3n017 . ISSN   1482-1826.
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  25. 1 2 3 4 Silber, Johanna; Kramer, Annemarie; Labes, Antje; Tasdemir, Deniz (2016-07-21). "From Discovery to Production: Biotechnology of Marine Fungi for the Production of New Antibiotics". Marine Drugs. 14 (7): 137. doi: 10.3390/md14070137 . ISSN   1660-3397. PMC   4962027 . PMID   27455283.
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  28. 1 2 Sharma, Homa Nath; Catrett, Jonathan; Nwokeocha, Ogechi Destiny; Boersma, Melissa; Miller, Michael E.; Napier, Audrey; Robertson, Boakai K.; Abugri, Daniel A. (2023-05-29). "Anti-Toxoplasma gondii activity of Trametes versicolor (Turkey tail) mushroom extract". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 8667. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13.8667S. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-35676-6. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   10225767 . PMID   37248277.
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  31. ↑ Slavov, Nikolay; Cvengroš, Ján; Neudörfl, Jörg-Martin; Schmalz, Hans-Günther (2010-08-31). "Total Synthesis of the Marine Antibiotic Pestalone and its Surprisingly Facile Conversion into Pestalalactone and Pestalachloride A". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 49 (41): 7588–7591. doi:10.1002/anie.201003755. ISSN   1433-7851. PMID   21038453.
  32. ↑ Cueto, M.; Jensen, P. R.; Kauffman, C.; Fenical, W.; Lobkovsky, E.; Clardy, J. (November 2001). "Pestalone, a new antibiotic produced by a marine fungus in response to bacterial challenge". Journal of Natural Products. 64 (11): 1444–1446. doi:10.1021/np0102713. ISSN   0163-3864. PMID   11720529.
  33. 1 2 Biology (4th edition) N.A.Campbell, p.23 'An Interview with Eloy Rodriguez' (Benjamin Cummings NY, 1996) ISBN   0-8053-1957-3
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