The American Jewish Committee (AJC) is a civil rights[4] group and Jewish advocacy group established on November 11, 1906.[1][5] It is one of the oldest Jewish advocacy organizations and, according to the New York Times, is "widely regarded as the dean of American Jewish organizations".
The American Jewish Committee (AJC) is an international advocacy organization whose key area of focus is to promote religious and civil rights for Jews and others.[5][8]
AJC has 25 regional offices in the United States, 13 overseas offices, and 35 international partnerships with Jewish communal institutions around the world.[9]
Programs and institutes
AJC Transatlantic Institute
AJC's Jacob Blaustein Institute (JBI) for the Advancement of Human Rights, led by Felice Gaer from 1993 to 2024, is the only human rights division within a major Jewish organization. Under Gaer, the JBI expanded its focus to global universal rights, including women’s rights, torture victims, and the protection of political dissidents.[10][11] JBI called for international action in response to the Darfur genocide and ethnic cleansing during the Sudanese civil war.[12]
The AJC Transatlantic Institute, based in Brussels, was opened in February 2004 to promote ties between the transatlantic relationship between the United States and Europe.[13]
Sidney Lerner Center for Arab-Jewish Understanding in Abu Dhabi
William Petschek Contemporary Jewish Life
History
1900–1929
On November 11, 1906, 81 Jewish Americans of Central European background met in the Hotel Savoy in New York City to establish the American Jewish Committee.[1] The immediate impetus for the group's formation was to speak on behalf of American Jewry to the U.S. government about pressuring Tsarist Russia to stop pogroms against Jews in the Russian Empire. More broadly, AJC sought to protect the rights of Jews all over the world and to combat anti-Jewish discrimination and antisemitism.[8][14][15]
In its early years, the AJC worked quietly and behind the scenes, utilizing the contacts of its well-connected and self-constituted Jewish elite, who were mostly Reform Jews. The organization's early intent was simply to eliminate the barriers to full Jewish participation in American life and secure, as far as possible, Jewish equality in other countries.[14] Early leaders included lawyer Louis Marshall, banker Jacob H. Schiff, Judge Mayer Sulzberger, scholar Cyrus Adler, and other well-to-do and politically connected Jews.
Marshall was AJC's president from 1912 until his death in 1929.[16] While president, Marshall is credited with making the AJC a leading voice in the 1920s against immigration restrictions. Additionally, he succeeded in forcing Henry Ford to cease publication and distribution of his antisemitic newspaper The Dearborn Independent. Ford was also made to apologize publicly and pay a cash settlement.[17][18][19]
In 1914, the AJC helped create the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, established to aid Jewish victims of World War I. After the war, Marshall went to Europe and used his influence to have provisions guaranteeing the rights of minorities inserted into the peace treaties.[20]
After Marshall's death, Cyrus Adler was unanimously elected AJC's president at the organization's annual meeting in November 1929.[21]
1930s and 1940s
The AJC advocated finding places of refuge for Jewish refugees from Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, but had minimal success. After World War II broke out in 1939, the AJC stressed that the war was for democracy and discouraged emphasis on Hitler's anti-Jewish policies lest a backlash identify it as a "Jewish war" and increase antisemitism in the United States. When the war ended in 1945, it urged a human rights program upon the United Nations and proved vital in enlisting the support that made possible the human rights provisions in the UN Charter.[23]
The group faced a crisis in the 1940s when president Joseph Proskauer opposed Zionism, and AJC left the umbrella group American Jewish Conference due to its opposition.[24]
The AJC "worked to contain nativist sentiment in America rather than work to open America's doors to refugees" during the Holocaust. For fear of provoking an increase in antisemitic sentiment, the AJC opposed public activism.[25] They have been widely criticized for their inaction during the Holocaust; historian and AJC National Director of Jewish Communal Affairs Steven Bayme said AJC leaders "never understood the uniqueness of Nazism and its 'war against the Jews'."[26] This cautious approach changed after the war, when the AJC began openly lobbying for a new immigration law allowing entrance to the United States for displaced persons from Europe. This law also led to Nazi collaborators entering the United States, though it remains unclear whether a more restrictive policy would have avoided this outcome.[25]
Post World War II
After World War II, AJC changed its stance on the State of Israel.[24] In 1950, AJC President Jacob Blaustein reached an agreement with Israeli prime minister David Ben-Gurion stating that the political allegiance of American Jews was solely to their country of residence. By the Six-Day War of 1967, the AJC had become a passionate defender of the Jewish state, shedding old inhibitions to espouse the centrality of Jewish peoplehood.[citation needed]
The organization worked successfully to include a human rights provision in the UN Charter.[24]
Anti-Communism
The Rosenberg Case severely alarmed the AJC and other Jewish organizations, and the AJC supported the Rosenbergs' execution.[27] Writing from Sing Sing, Julius Rosenberg charged that "self-appointed leaders of Jewish organizations" were behaving like an "American Judenrat", accusing the AJC's Solomon Andhil Fineberg of spreading a false rumor that the Rosenbergs believed they were being prosecuted because they were Jewish.[28][29]
During the Second Red Scare, the AJC sent a representative to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee, emphasizing that "Judaism and Communism are utterly incompatible." The AJC shared files with HUAC and also employed a staff member to investigate alleged Communist infiltration among the Jewish community.[30] At the organization's conference in October 1950, the executive committee adopted a resolution stating that the protection and advancement of civil liberties and civil rights could not be accomplished with combatting communism in the United States. AJC chairman Irving M. Engel said that "loyalty to the fundamental basis of Judaism requires all Jews to stand with the vanguard in the struggle against totalitarianism. Our attitude as Americans...should be positive and vigorous against communism. Let all of us lead the attack against this common foe of America."[31]
Civil Rights Movement
As part of broader Jewish involvement in the Civil Rights Movement, AJC took the position that the rights of Jews in the United States could be best protected by pursuing equality of all Americans.[citation needed] AJC commissioned the social science research of black psychologist Kenneth Clark, which demonstrated how segregation affected black children. AJC cited Clark's research in its amicus curiae brief in support of Oliver Brown during the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education. The court cited Clark's research in its decision establishing racial segregation in public schools were unconstitutional.[32][33]
AJC, along with the ADL and American Jewish Congress, believed that racial quotas were unconstitutional, and Jewish groups opposed their use in determining admission in higher education in the United States. For this reason, AJC celebrated the landmark 1978 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke that struck down racial quotas in university admissions. Despite the Bakke decision, AJC supported affirmative action programs for disadvantaged groups. By 2003, the organization's opposition to affirmative action had tempered. The AJC's director of public policy Jeffrey Sinesky said that "It's the quota concept that's anathema" after the organization submitted a brief in defense of the University of Michigan's affirmative action program.[34][35]
According to the New York Times, the AJC had taken a leading role in the struggle for equal rights for African Americans in the United States by the early 1990s.[4]
Before the Six-Day War in 1967, the AJC was officially "non-Zionist". It had long been ambivalent about Zionism as possibly opening up Jews to the charge of dual loyalty, but it supported the creation of Israel in 1947–48, after the United States backed the partition of Palestine. It was the first American Jewish organization to open a permanent office in Israel.[38]
In the 1970s, the AJC spearheaded the fight to pass anti-boycott legislation to counter the Arab League boycott of Israel. In particular, Japan's defection[39] from the boycott was attributed to AJC persuasion. In 1975, the AJC became the first Jewish organization to campaign against the UN's "Zionism is Racism" Resolution 3379, when briefly integrated to President's Conference in order to join the touristic boycott against Mexico, after the World Conference on Women, 1975, the event in which Arab countries, the Soviet bloc, and Non-Aligned Movement countries impulsed the initial discussion that resulted in Resolution 3379. Along with other American Jewish organizations, the AJC announced the suspension of all their trips to Mexico as an expression of "the wish of some Jews and Jewish organizations to boycott Mexico".[40] They did this is spite of their anti-boycott tradition. Finally, the campaign against Resolution 3379 succeeded in 1991, as it was revoked through Resolution 4686. AJC played a leading role in breaking Israel's diplomatic isolation at the UN by helping it gain acceptance in WEOG (West Europe and Others), one of the UN's five regional groups.
The AJC was active in the campaign to gain emigration rights for Jews living in the Soviet Union; in 1964 it was one of the founders of the American Jewish Conference on Soviet Jewry, which in 1971 was superseded by the National Conference on Soviet Jewry.
1980s and 1990s
Founded in 1982, Project Interchange runs seminars in Israel for influential Americans.[41]
In December 1987, the AJC's Washington representative, David Harris, organized the Freedom Sunday Rally on behalf of Soviet Jewry. Approximately 250,000 people attended the D.C. rally, which demanded that the Soviet government allow Jewish emigration from the USSR.[42] In 1990, David Harris become executive director. Under his leadership, the AJC became increasingly involved in international affairs. Regular meetings with foreign diplomats both in the United States and in their home countries were supplemented each September by what came to be called a "diplomatic marathon," a series of meetings with high-level representatives of foreign countries who were in New York for the UN General Assembly session. The AJC annual meeting was also moved from New York to Washington, D.C., so that more government officials and foreign diplomats might participate.[citation needed]
In 1990, the AJC conducted a major restructuring, laying off 40 of its 275 staff and cutting $1 million from its $16 million annual budget, in order to focus its work on intergroup relations. The organization ended its activities in Western Europe and South America and merged into international relations offices in New York and Washington. According to Rabbi Arthur Hertzberg, the AJC had been challenged by more aggressive groups. The ADL and Simon Wiesenthal Center had taken a more strident position on the antisemitism issue, while the American Jewish Congress had attracted liberals with its willingness to criticize the policies of Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Shamir.[4]
In 1998, the AJC established a full-time presence in Germany—the first American Jewish organization to do so—opening an office in Berlin.[43]
In 2001, the AJC became official partners with the Geneva-based UN Watch.[46]
In 2005, as part of its continuing efforts to respond to humanitarian crises, the organization contributed US$2.5 million to relief funds and reconstruction projects for the victims of the South Asian tsunami and Hurricane Katrina in the US.[47]
By its 100th anniversary in 2006, AJC had 33 chapters in the United States and a presence in 20 countries. Organization leaders marked the occasion with a multi-country tour across Europe and the Middle East.[24] Nearly 2,000 people gathered in Washington, D.C., to celebrate its 100th Annual Meeting that May, and President George W. Bush, U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan, and German chancellor Angela Merkel attended a reception in its honor. These individuals gave credit to the American Jewish Committee for protecting Jewish Security and human rights around the world.[48]
AJC became increasingly involved in the advocacy of energy independence for the U.S. on the grounds that this would reduce dependence on foreign, especially Arab, oil; boost the American economy; and improve the environment. AJC urged Congress and several presidential administrations to take action toward this goal, and called upon the private sector to be more energy-conscious. It adopted "Green" policies for itself institutionally, and in 2011 earned LEED certification, denoting that its New York headquarters was energy efficient and environmentally sound.[citation needed]
As part of a new strategic plan adopted in 2009, the AJC said it envisioned itself as the "Global Center for Jewish and Israel Advocacy" and the "Central 'Jewish Address' for Intergroup Relations and Human Rights." Its new tagline was "Global Jewish Advocacy."[49]
2010s
AJC diplomatic efforts since 2010 include opposition to Iran's program to attain nuclear capability;[50] a campaign to get the European Union to designate Hezbollah a terrorist organization;[51] preserving the right of Jews to practice circumcision in Germany; and urging the government of Greece to take action against the neo-Nazi Golden Dawn party.[52]
In October 2011, the AJC issued a joint statement with the Anti-Defamation League urging American Jews to support a Joint Unity Pledge stating: "America's friendship with Israel is an emotional, moral and strategic bond that has always transcended politics." It urged that "now is the time to reaffirm that Israel's well-being is best served, as it always has been, by American voices raised together in unshakeable support for our friend and ally."[53]
The statement aroused a storm of protest from Jewish opponents of President Obama's re-election, who perceived it as a call to avoid criticizing the president's policies toward Israel. In the pages of the Wall Street Journal, former Under Secretary of Defense Douglas Feith asked: "Since when have American supporters of Israel believed that a candidate's attitudes toward Israel should be kept out of electoral politics? Since never."[54] David Harris responded that the statement was intended to preserve the tradition of bipartisan support for Israel and prevent it from becoming "a dangerous political football." While Harris recognized the right of anyone in the Jewish community to take a partisan position, he stressed the need for "strong advocacy in both parties" at a time of looming international difficulties for the Jewish state.[55]
On 22 February 2019, the AJC condemned the Otzma Yehudit party, calling its views "reprehensible." The AJC statement said Otzma Yehudit's views "do not reflect the core values that are the very foundation of the State of Israel."[58] The AJC statement came after the Bayit Yehudi party merged with Otzma Yehudit and the new joint slate appeared likely to win enough votes to earn seats in the next Knesset as well as ministerial roles for some of its members.[58] No members of Otzma Yehudit were elected.
2020s
In January 2020, the AJC and the Muslim World League, a Mecca-based non-governmental organization, led a historic joint delegation of Muslims and Jews to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz, the Nazi German death and concentration camp.[59] The trip was the most senior Islamic delegation to ever visit Auschwitz.[60] As a part of the visit, David Harris and Dr. Al-Issa, secretary-general of the Muslim World League, published a joint opinion editorial in the Chicago ''Tribune'' on how Auschwitz united Muslims and Jews.[61]
In June 2021, AJC opened an office in Abu Dhabi, its first office in an Arab country and its 13th office outside the United States to build on the Abraham Accords. The office's inaugural leader was Marc Sievers, former U.S. ambassador to Oman.[62][63]
In early 2022, the AJC released its fourth annual "State of Antisemitism in America" report and later that year the organization announced its "Call to Action on Antisemitism" playbook.[64][65] After a string of high-profile antisemitic incidents, including comments made by Kanye West,[66][67] the organization participated in a White House round-table on antisemitism with Second Gentleman Doug Emhoff.[68][69]
After more than years as CEO, David Harris retired in 2022 and was replaced by South Florida congressman Ted Deutch.[70][71][72]
AJC is the oldest Jewish defense and community relations organization in the United States,[14] and is widely regarded as the dean of American Jewish organizations.[4][74] According to historian Jonathan Sarna, AJC is known for its deep research of issues and working behind the scenes with high-level international contacts.[24]
The AJC published liberal magazine Present Tense from 1973 until 1990, when AJC ceased publication as part of an organizational reorganization. Murray Polner was the magazine's first and only editor. Present Tense often published articles critical of Israel and the American Jewish establishment.[74][76] The organization also published conservative journal Commentary.[4]
A 2007 essay, "Progressive Jewish Thought and the New Anti-Semitism" by Professor Alvin H. Rosenfeld,[77] published on the AJC website, criticized Jewish critics of Israel by name, particularly the editors and contributors to "Wrestling With Zion: Progressive Jewish-American Responses to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict" (Grove Press), a 2003 collection of essays edited by Tony Kushner and Alisa Solomon. The essay accused these writers of participating in an "onslaught against Zionism and the Jewish State," which he considered a veiled form of supporting a rise in antisemitism.[78]
In an editorial, the Jewish newspaper The Forward called Rosenfeld's essay "a shocking tissue of slander" whose intent was to "turn Jews against liberalism and silence critics." Richard Cohen remarked that the essay "has given license to the most intolerant and narrow-minded of Israel's defenders so that, as the AJC concedes in my case, any veering from orthodoxy is met with censure ... the most powerful of all post-Holocaust condemnations—anti-Semite—is diluted beyond recognition."[79]
In a Jerusalem Post op-ed, AJC Executive Director David Harris explained why the organization published Rosenfeld's essay in 2007:
Rosenfeld has courageously taken on the threat that arises when a Jewish imprimatur is given to the campaign to challenge Israel's very legitimacy. He has the right to express his views no less than those whom he challenges. It is important to stress that he has not suggested that those about whom he writes are anti-Semitic, though that straw-man argument is being invoked by some as a diversionary tactic. As befits a highly regarded and prolific scholar, he has written a well-documented and thought-provoking essay that deserves to be considered on its merits.[83]
The Jewish Council for Public Affairs (JCPA) is an American Jewish nonprofit organization that advocates for progressive and liberal policies. Founded in 1944 as the umbrella organization for local Jewish advocacy arms known as community relations councils, for almost 80 years it represented approximately 125 local Jewish federations and community relations councils and was the coordinating body for 15 national Jewish organizations.
The Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations is the umbrella organization for the American Jewish community. Comprising 50 national Jewish organizations, it was founded in 1956 to develop a consensus voice among Jewish organizations, especially to the U.S. government.
New antisemitism is the concept that a new form of antisemitism developed in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, typically manifesting itself as anti-Zionism. The concept is included in some definitions of antisemitism, such as the working definition of antisemitism and the 3D test of antisemitism. The concept dates to the early 1970s.
Jewish Voice for Peace is an American Jewish anti-Zionist and left-wing advocacy organization. It is critical of Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories, and supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign against Israel.
The American Jewish Congress (AJCongress) is an association of American Jews organized to defend Jewish interests at home and abroad through public policy advocacy, using diplomacy, legislation, and the courts.
StandWithUs (SWU) is a nonprofit right-wing pro-Israel advocacy organization founded in Los Angeles in 2001 by Roz Rothstein, Jerry Rothstein, and Esther Renzer.
UN Watch is a Geneva-based non-governmental organization (NGO) whose stated mission is "to monitor the performance of the United Nations by the yardstick of its own Charter". It is an accredited NGO in Special Consultative Status to the UN Economic and Social Council and an Associate NGO to the UN Department of Public Information.
Kenneth S. Stern is an American attorney and an author. He is the director of the Bard Center for the Study of Hate, a program of the Human Rights Project at Bard College. From 2014 to 2018 he was the executive director of the Justus & Karin Rosenberg Foundation. From 1989 to 2014 he was the director of antisemitism, hate studies and extremism for the American Jewish Committee. In 2000, Stern was a special advisor to the defense in the David Irving v. Penguin Books and Deborah Lipstadt trial. His 2020 book, The Conflict Over the Conflict: The Israel/Palestine Campus Debate, examines attempts of partisans of each side to censor the other, and the resulting damage to the academy.
The Office of the Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Antisemitism is an office of the Under Secretary for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights at the United States Department of State. The office "advances U.S. foreign policy on antisemitism" by developing and implementing policies and projects to support efforts to combat antisemitism.
The Anti-Defamation League (ADL), formerly known as the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, is a New York–based international non-governmental organization that was founded to combat antisemitism, as well as other forms of bigotry and discrimination. ADL is also known for its pro-Israel advocacy. Its current CEO is Jonathan Greenblatt. ADL headquarters are located in Murray Hill, in the New York City borough of Manhattan. The ADL has 25 regional offices in the United States including a Government Relations Office in Washington, D.C., as well as an office in Israel and staff in Europe. In its 2019 annual information Form 990, ADL reported total revenues of $92 million, the vast majority from contributions and grants. Its total operating revenue is reported at $80.9 million.
Durban III is an informal name for a high-level United Nations General Assembly meeting marking the 10th anniversary of the adoption of The Durban Declaration and Programme of Action that was held in New York City on 22 September 2011. It was mandated by United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) resolution 64/148 of 18 December 2009 to commemorate the World Conference against Racism 2001, and given additional form and visibility by a UNGA Third Committee draft resolution adopted on 24 November 2010. It followed the Durban Review Conference, the official name of the 2009 United Nations World Conference Against Racism (WCAR), also known as Durban II.
Criticism of Israel is a subject of journalistic and scholarly commentary and research within the scope of international relations theory, expressed in terms of political science. Israel has faced international criticism since its establishment in 1948 relating to a variety of issues, many of which are centered around human rights violations in its occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
David Alan Harris is an American political activist who served as the CEO of the American Jewish Committee (AJC), from 1990 to 2022. During his tenure, AJC became a global organization and began quiet engagement with countries in the Arab world, laying the groundwork for the Abraham Accords. For his role in international diplomacy, former Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres called Harris "the foreign minister of the Jewish people."
The Louis D. Brandeis Center for Human Rights Under Law (LDB) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization founded by Kenneth L. Marcus in 2012 with the stated purpose of advancing the civil and human rights of the Jewish people and promoting justice for all peoples. LDB is active on American campuses, where it says it combats antisemitism and anti-Zionism.
Students for Justice in Palestine is a pro-Palestinian college student activism organization in the United States, Canada and New Zealand. Founded at the University of California in 2001, it has campaigned for boycott and divestment against corporations that deal with Israel and organized events about Israel's human rights violations. In 2011, The New York Times called it "the leading pro-Palestinian voice on campus". As of 2024, National SJP has over 350 chapters in North America.
The working definition of antisemitism, also called the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance definition of antisemitism or IHRA definition, is a non-legally binding statement on what antisemitism is, that reads: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It was first published by European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC) in 2005 and then by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) in 2016. Accompanying the working definition, but of disputed status, are 11 illustrative examples whose purpose is described as guiding the IHRA in its work, seven of which relate to criticism of Israel.
The Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism (JDA) is a document meant to outline the bounds of antisemitic speech and conduct, particularly with regard to Zionism, Israel and Palestine. Its creation was motivated by a desire to confront antisemitism and by objections to the IHRA Definition of Antisemitism, which critics have said stifles legitimate criticism of the Israeli government and curbs free speech. The drafting of the declaration was initiated in June 2020 under the auspices of the Van Leer Institute in Jerusalem by eight coordinators, most of whom were university professors. Upon its completion the declaration was signed by about 200 scholars in various fields and released in March 2021.
Jacob Blaustein was an American entrepreneur, philanthropist, and diplomat who founded the American Oil Company with his father Louis Blaustein. Blaustein was an ardent supporter of human rights, the rights of Jewish people, and an advocate for multilateralism through the United Nations, serving as a United States delegate to the UN under five U.S. presidents.
Baronesse Katharina von Schnurbein is a German civil servant who has served as the European Commission's coordinator on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish life since 2015. She is the first person to hold this role, which reports to Vice-President of the European Commission Margaritis Schinas under his portfolio of European Commissioner for Promoting our European Way of Life.
Zionist as a pejorative or Zio is a term commonly used by "anti-Zionists" as described by academics, political parties and civil rights organizations as antisemitic, including but not limited to the American Jewish Committee (AJC), Anti-Defamation League (ADL), the British Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats.
Cohen, Naomi Wiener. "The Transatlantic Connection: The American Jewish Committee and the Joint Foreign Committee in Defense of German Jews, 1933-1937," American Jewish History V. 90, #4, December 2002, pp.353–384 in Project MUSE.
Cohen, Naomi Wiener. Not Free to Desist: The American Jewish Committee, 1906-1966 (1972), a standard history
Grossman, Lawrence. "Transformation Through Crisis: The American Jewish Committee and the Six-Day War," American Jewish History, Volume 86, Number 1, March 1998, pp.27–54.
Handlin, Oscar. "The American Jewish Committee: A Half-Century View," Commentary (Jan. 1957), pp.1–10, online.
Levy, Richard S., ed. Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution (Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO, 2005) pp 16–17.
Loeffler, James, "The Particularist Pursuit of American Universalism: The American Jewish Committee's 1944 'Declaration on Human Rights,'" Journal of Contemporary History (April 2015) 50, pp.274–95.
Sanua, Marianne R. Let Us Prove Strong: The American Jewish Committee, 1945-2006 (2007) – the standard scholarly history.
Solomon, Abba A. The Speech, and Its Context: Jacob Blaustein's Speech "The Meaning of Palestine Partition to American Jews" Given to the Baltimore Chapter, American Jewish Committee, February 15, 1948 (2011) – includes full text of speech, and some history of AJC perspective on Palestine and Israel.
Svonkin, Stuart. Jews Against Prejudice: American Jews and the Fight for Civil Liberties (1997) – covers AJC and other groups including the Anti-Defamation League and the American Jewish Congress.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
