Racism in Mexico refers to the social phenomenon in which behaviors of discrimination, prejudice, and any form of antagonism are directed against people in that country due to their race, ethnicity, skin color, language, or physical complexion. It may also refer to the treatment and sense of superiority of one race over another.
Racism in Mexico has a long history. [1] [2] It is understood to be inherited from the caste system of the colonial period. [2] However, this was not a rigid system, nor explicitly about race. [3] In general today, people who are black and indigenous make up nearly all of the peasantry and working classes, while lighter-skinned Mexicans – many being criollo, directly of Spanish descent – are in the ruling elite. [4] "According to INEGI, skin color continues to be a factor in social stratification... with lighter skin color, [there are] more opportunities to have better paid jobs and better managerial positions." [5]
Additionally, racism and xenophobia are closely linked in Mexico. There are a number of historic and recent examples that include legally barring certain nationalities and ethnicities entry into the country, insensitive treatment and stereotyping of other races, and the notorious 1903 Torreón massacre of a Chinese community.
For many, the Spanish caste system is the main antecedent of the phenomenon of discrimination in Mexico. The different colonial institutions established exclusion protocols based on blood purity. Spanish blood was considered the most dignified, while African blood was the least valuable. [6]
According to Federico Navarrete, doctor in Mesoamerican Studies from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), the indigenous people were the great population base of America and therefore they were the base of the economic system, the white Spaniards occupied the privileged positions of the political and economic structure, while the Indians had to work and pay tributes and taxes to the crown, and at the lowest level were the blacks, who only lived to work as slaves. Mestizos held a position below the Spanish, but above Indians and Blacks. The caste system grew from that and took on its own nomenclature to refer to the different mixtures of European, indigenous, and African blood.
For Navarrete, the use of all these distinctions actually had more to do with practical purposes and social standing, more than with the modern conception of racism (which only emerged in the early nineteenth century) so the terms 'caste' should not be confused with 'race'. [7] After several centuries of colonialism, constant miscegenation reached the point that it was not possible to distinguish between 'pure bloods' and mestizos. The legacy of this is that "associations between socioeconomic status and racialized traits" are imbedded into Mexican society and culture to this day. [8]
This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source .(September 2021) |
The Porfiriato was a period in the history of Mexico in which the general and politician Porfirio Díaz was president of the country. This period was between 1877 and 1911 and was characterized by the Porfirian policies called "order and progress" and "bread or stick". [9] It was a period of overall economic growth. However, this was at the cost of the exploitation of indigenous and other marginalized groups. In this period, the haciendas had their peak. The peasants were mostly indigenous and black. The landowners were generally white, wealthy, foreigners. Due to the exploitation of workers and peasants, several strikes occurred throughout the country at that time, but the most important were those in Río Blanco and Cananea. [10] The social consequence that had the most impact on racism during that time was perhaps the Caste War, in which the Mayan indigenous people rebelled against the white and mestizo population of Yucatán. There was also the exile of the Yaquis Indians from their native Sonora, in the northwest of the country, to the state of Yucatán, in the Mexican southeast, which caused the Battle of Mazocoba. Some authors suggest that racism during the Porfiriato was due to an exacerbated Mexican nationalist sentiment and to the Europeanization of Mexican culture, especially a systematic Frenchification. [11]
The constant exploitation of indigenous people, the seizure of their lands, the long dictatorial period of General Porfirio Díaz, and the general discontent led to the outbreak of the 1910 Mexican Revolution. México Bárbaro ('Barbarian Mexico') was an extensive series of articles published by The American Magazine to publicize the human slavery that was practiced during the final years of the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz in places like Yucatán and Valle Nacional in Mexico.
After the Independence of Mexico in 1821, and after the proclamation of the Constitution of 1824, "indigenous peoples lost their special colonial status, and accompanying protections, as wards of the government." [12]
According to the National Council to Prevent Discrimination (CONAPRED), indigenous people, homosexuals and blacks, are the most discriminated groups in Mexico. [13] In the words of the researcher Alexandra Haas, "in Mexico, unlike what happens in other countries such as the United States, racism affects a population majority instead of a privileged minority." [14]
The National Council to Prevent Discrimination is a Mexican government agency only created in 2003.
According to the National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL), 71% of indigenous people live in poverty. While CONAPRED confirms that the majority of people who consider themselves Afro-descendants live in situations of marginalization and poverty. According to the census, the Afro-Mexican population is made up of 1,300,000 people. Only in 2019 was this identity, Afro-Mexicans, constitutionally recognized; its first official count was done for the 2020 census. [15]
According to INEGI, skin color continues to be a factor in social stratification. According to the results of the first Intergenerational Social Mobility Module, the lighter the skin color, the more opportunities there are to get better paying jobs and managerial positions. The national discrimination survey conducted by INEGI in 2017 shows that 3 out of 10 respondents believe that the country's indigenous population is poor due to their culture. In addition, five out of 10 people belonging to an ethnic group declared that, in the past five years, they were denied access to health services. [14] These premises can be applied to different categories, such as schooling, employment and wealth. With which it can be concluded that in Mexico ethnic origin functions as a social and economic determinant, despite the fact that there is no longer an institution that regulates it. [6] However, there are notable exceptions as most of the poor in the rural north of Mexico are White (called "güeros de rancho", something akin to white trash), [16] whilst in Southern Mexico – particularly in the states of Yucatán and Chiapas – Amerindians and Mestizos make up a large part of the upper class. [17]
In 2020, after George Floyd's murder in the United States, actor Tenoch Huerta brought the issue of racism in Mexico to the table through social networks, which caused a controversy with actor Mauricio Martínez, who was accused of misogyny and racism. [18] [19] [20]
In Mexico, around 25 million people consider themselves indigenous, [21] although only 7 million people speak indigenous languages. [22] Nevertheless, in Mexico you can see racism and discrimination against the different indigenous peoples who live mainly in rural areas of the country. They are commonly depicted as poor, or backwards, or 'lower' than the rest of the population due to their skin tone, physical features, ways of dressing, language, and their traditions and customs. [23] [24]
40.3% of the indigenous population have felt discriminated against, [25] 2.9 million indigenous people have expressed that they have been denied rights and services. Among these are medical services and the delivery of medicines, followed by the denial of social services, lack of attention in government offices and job opportunities. [26] 20.3% of the indigenous population feel that they have been discriminated against at work or school, as well as on the streets and public transportation. [27] 24% of the indigenous population affirms that they have been excluded in social activities; forms of exclusion range from insults and looks of contempt, to threats and shoves. [27]
The indigenous population suffers from more precarious conditions than the rest of the population. 71% of the indigenous population is in a state of poverty. The two states with the largest indigenous population in the country; Chiapas and Oaxaca are the two states with the most poverty, with 76.4% and 66.4% of the poor population respectively, [28] indigenous people are four times more likely to be poor. [29] Likewise, illiteracy in the indigenous population is higher than the rest, 76.7% of the indigenous population can read and write, compared to 93.6% of the non-indigenous population, [30] Furthermore, the education of the indigenous population is lower, 21.3% of the indigenous population has no education, compared to 5% of the rest of the population, [30] only 4.9% of the entire indigenous population receives higher education, with the likelihood of achieving that level of schooling is six times lower for the indigenous population. [30] Job opportunities are fewer, and the indigenous population has less relevant jobs. [28] They are paid less and around 14.8% of the indigenous working population does not receive a salary, and only 1.7% are the employers. [30]
There has been a history of Anti-Chinese (antichinismo) sentiment and policy in Mexico. Jason Chang authored the 2017 book titled Chino: Anti-Chinese Racism in Mexico, 1880-1940, which discusses antichinismo in detail. [31] [32] [33] After a lead up of racist attacks, again under Porfirio, in 1911 there was a massacre of 303 Chinese in Torreón. [34] [35] During the Second World War Japanese residents were put under surveillance, movement was restricted, and some were expelled. [36] There is a 2009 book on the topic titled The War Against the Japanese in Mexico (La guerra contra los japoneses en México) by Galindo Sergio Hernández. Asians in Mexico regularly deal with petty stereotypes and mocking. During the COVID-19 pandemic an upswing in racial abuse has been documented against Chinese and all Asians in Mexico. [37] [38]
Mexico was a major trading point in the Atlantic Slave Trade. 2.5% population of Afro-Mexicans still exist today in Mexico. In Southern Mexican towns near Belize, where the Afro-Mexican population is larger, there is a general negative attitude towards people of African descent. [39]
Beginning in the late 1800s and continuing into the first decades of the 20th century – before and after the 1910 Revolution – xenophobic resentment towards immigrants manifested itself in different ways in official legislation. After the brutal treatment of the indigenous during the Porfiriato, a new nationalism rose on the basis of a majority ethnic composition, the Mestizo race. Fundamentally, this was an anti-colonial project to create national unity. [8] Measures to preserve the ethnic composition of Mexico aimed to curtail an influx of migrants of the "fundamentally different" Western and Chinese peoples. [13] There were limits put on immigration despite the very low total numbers of immigrants living in Mexico at that time. Boats were inspected before leaving China to prevent the "dregs of humanity" from being sent over. [13] There were huge numbers of European immigrants at the time of the First World War, but most Europeans did not come to Mexico, normally opting for the US, also Argentina or Brazil. [13] Those that did migrate to Mexico – along with the Chinese – were considered infectious, degenerate, and poisonous to the Mestizo race, and therefore the nation. [13] In 1924 African-Americans and Afro-Cubans were explicitly restricted from immigrating, and in 1927 Eastern Europeans, Turkish, and Middle Eastern people were also considered "undesirable". Later in the 1930s prohibitions on "undesirable races" like "black, yellow, Malaysian and Hindu" people, as well as against Jews, and gypsies, were implemented. [13] [40]
At the end of 2018, a series of migrant caravans of Central Americans, made up mostly of Honduran migrants and to a lesser extent South Americans, crossed the southern border of Mexico, heading for the United States. The government of Mexico repressed a large part of the migrants through the use of force, after which Donald Trump congratulated the Mexican government, [41] while many others succeeded in their mission and entered Mexican territory. Those who managed to cross the border were given support, asylum, visas, and work for those immigrants who stayed in Mexico. However, this generated a wave of xenophobic comments, especially through social networks, by Mexicans who disagreed with the empathatic measures that had been taken, arguing things such as "I am not racist but ... first you have to help ours", "there is no work for everyone", "they are not going to cross, they are going to stay and they are only going to bring more violence", and more. [42]
In a march called to protest against the policies of the incoming government of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the attendees also protested against migration. Photos of people carrying banners that said: "No more undesirable immigrants" were circulated online. There are also political parties in Mexico using racist and anti-immigrant slogans and speeches against foreigners, to reinforce the sentiment of Mexican nationalism. [42] The most extreme xenophobic expressions were made by the Movimiento Nacionalista Mexicano (Mexican Nationalist Movement), a group that linked immigrants with criminals from the Mara Salvatrucha.
In 2020, the border with Guatemala was closed. [43] On the same topic, one academic shares that: "in Latin America there is pigmentocracy , if you are a güero [light skinned] you are on the side of prosperity... and even goodness. Many of the Central Americans are Afro-descendants and that makes them undesirable. Otherwise they would be very well received." [42]
Spanish immigrants were common from the late 19th century until 1950 and experienced xenophobia and hispanophobia. [44] They were blamed for many of the problems in Mexico from the late 1800s on, and they were equated with being rich, or as landlords, while also being seen as benefiting from "privileged immigration". [13] Besides obviously La conquista, this was directly related to the earlier 'open door' policies for European investment of Porfirio Díaz. [45] [35]
Stereotypes, both positive and negative, about foreigners persist in Mexico. [46] There are a number of cases of the "rejection" of white foreigners, yet it is downplayed because they are seen as symbolic representatives of countries Mexico has a colonial or military history with. [36] White people, especially tourists, regularly experience overcharging, or what is known as the white tax. [47] [48] [49]
The use of racist terms and phrases in Mexico is common, but due to how accepted the expressions are, many do not realize they are rooted in racist thinking. For example, it is often said when a Mestizo person of a darker-skinned tone marries a Mestizo person of a lighter skinned-tone, they are “making the race better" ("Estan mejorando la raza."). [50] The term Malinche (or Malinchismo) is used when a Mexican woman likes or dates a white man. [51] As a reference to La Malinche, a Nahua woman who translated for and aided Hernán Cortés, its meaning in this context is traitor. [52]
There are a number of common Mexican phrases that reflect negative beliefs about black people, such as "getting black" (meaning getting angry), a "supper of blacks" or cena de negros (meaning a group of people getting together to cause trouble), [39] [53] "the little black boy in the rice" or el negrito en el arroz (meaning an unpleasant dark skin tone), and work like a black or trabajar como negro (which refers to work as a slave). [53]
The Mexican comic strip created by Yolanda Vargas, Memín Pinguín , used racist stereotypes of black people. [62] [63]
Reproductions of Nazi regalia are found regularly in Mexico City markets. [64]
With a population of about 129 million in 2022, Mexico is the 10th most populated country in the world. It is the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world and the third-most populous country in the Americas after the United States and Brazil. Throughout most of the 20th century Mexico's population was characterized by rapid growth. Although this tendency has been reversed and average annual population growth over the last five years was less than 1%, the demographic transition is still in progress; Mexico still has a large youth cohort. The most populous city in the country is the capital, Mexico City, with a population of 8.9 million (2016), and its metropolitan area is also the most populated with 20.1 million (2010). Approximately 50% of the population lives in one of the 55 large metropolitan areas in the country. In total, about 78.84% of the population of the country lives in urban areas, and only about 21.16% in rural ones.
Mestizo is a person of mixed European and indigenous non-European ancestry in the former Spanish Empire. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though their ancestors are indigenous. The term was used as an ethno-racial exonym for mixed-race castas that evolved during the Spanish Empire. It was a formal label for individuals in official documents, such as censuses, parish registers, Inquisition trials, and others. Priests and royal officials might have classified persons as mestizos, but individuals also used the term in self-identification.
Cholo is a loosely defined Spanish term that has had various meanings. Its origin is a somewhat derogatory term for people of mixed-blood heritage in the Spanish Empire in Latin America and its successor states as part of castas, the informal ranking of society by heritage. Cholo no longer necessarily refers only to ethnic heritage, and is not always meant negatively. Cholo can signify anything from its original sense as a person with one indigenous parent and one Mestizo parent, "gangster" in Mexico, an insult in some South American countries, or a "person who dresses in the manner of a certain subculture" in the United States as part of the cholo subculture.
Mexicans are the citizens and nationals of the United Mexican States.
Casta is a term which means "lineage" in Spanish and Portuguese and has historically been used as a racial and social identifier. In the context of the Spanish Empire in the Americas, the term also refers to a now-discredited 20th-century theoretical framework which postulated that colonial society operated under a hierarchical race-based "caste system". From the outset, colonial Spanish America resulted in widespread intermarriage: unions of Spaniards, indigenous people, and Africans. Basic mixed-race categories that appeared in official colonial documentation were mestizo, generally offspring of a Spaniard and an Indigenous person; and mulatto, offspring of a Spaniard and an African. A plethora of terms were used for people with mixed Spanish, Indigenous, and African ancestry in 18th-century casta paintings, but they are not known to have been widely used officially or unofficially in the Spanish Empire.
Indigenous peoples of Mexico, Native Mexicans or Mexican Native Americans, are those who are part of communities that trace their roots back to populations and communities that existed in what is now Mexico before the arrival of Europeans.
In Hispanic America, criollo is a term used originally to describe people of full Spanish descent born in the viceroyalties. In different Latin American countries, the word has come to have different meanings, mostly referring to the local-born majority.
White Latin Americans or European Latin Americans are Latin Americans of European descent.
White Mexicans are individuals in Mexico who identify as white, often due to their physical appearance or their recognition of European ancestry. The Mexican government conducts ethnic censuses that allow individuals to identify as "White," but the specific results of these censuses are not made public. Instead, the government releases data on the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" in the country, which was 47% in 2010 and increased to 49% in 2017. The term "Light-skinned Mexican" is preferred by both the government and media to describe individuals in Mexico who possess European physical traits when discussing ethno-racial dynamics. However, "White Mexican" is still used at times.
In Argentina, there are and have been cases of discrimination based on ethnic characteristics or national origin. In turn, racial discrimination tends to be closely related to discriminatory behavior for socio-economic and political reasons.
Spanish Mexicans are citizens or residents of Mexico who identify as Spanish as a result of nationality or recent ancestry. Spanish immigration to Mexico began in the early 1500s and spans to the present day. The vast majority of Mexicans have at least partial Spanish ancestry; the Northern regions of Mexico have a higher prevalence of Spanish heritage. There are three recognized large-scale Spanish immigration waves to the territory which is now Mexico: the first arrived during the colonial period, the second during the Porfiriato and the third after the Spanish Civil War.
There is no single system of races or ethnicities that covers all modern Latin America, and usage of labels may vary substantially.
In Mexico, the term mestizo is used to refer to an identity of those of mixed European and Indigenous Mexican descent. Some believe it can be defined by criteria ranging from ideological and cultural to self-identification, genetic ancestry, or physical appearance. According to these criteria, estimates of the number of mestizos in Mexico vary from about 40 percent of the population to over 90% who do not belong to the country's culturally indigenous minorities. A survey done by Latinobarometro in 2018 found that around 58% of Mexicans self-identify as mestizos when asked about their race, and another survey by Cohesión Social found that over 70% of Mexicans identified as mixed-race. Some genetic studies have claimed that mestizos make up over 93% of Mexico's present-day population, but this is disputed, with many Mexicans, including those of mixed ancestry, identifying more with static racial labels such as "white" or "indigenous" rather than mestizo, and a large number simply identifying as "Mexican," rejecting racialized labels.
Esther Pineda G., often published as Esther Pineda, is a Venezuelan sociologist and feminist writer. She has written sociological studies, essay collections, and poetic anthologies about misogyny in the history of Western philosophy, the connection between machismo and violence against women, and racial discrimination, particularly against Afro-Venezuelans. Pineda holds a PhD in sociology, and her writing frequently uses tools of sociological analysis.
Racism in Chile encompasses any type of racial or ethnic discrimination by a group of inhabitants or organizations of that country against groups from other nations or the same nation. The origins of Chilean racism, and that of other Latin American nations, can be traced back to 16th century colonialism under the rule of the Spanish Empire. In the establishment of imperial rule, Native Americans experienced extermination, slavery and forced miscegenation.
New Order is a 2020 Mexican-French thriller art film. It takes place in a dystopian near future Mexico. It was written, directed, produced and edited by Michel Franco and is a French-Mexican co-production.
The Monumento a los Constructores, also known as the Monumento a los Constructores de la Ciudad, is a partly-destroyed outdoor bronze monument installed along Acueducto Avenue, in the historic center of Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico. The artwork was created by José Luis Padilla Retana and was unveiled in May 1995 in honor of those who built the city.
Racism in Peru comprises negative attitudes and views on race or ethnicity which are related to each other, are held by various people and groups in Peru, and have been reflected in discriminatory laws, practices and actions at various times in the history of Peru against racial or ethnic groups. Peruvian intellectuals, who were mainly white and based in the developed capital city of Lima, historically denied that racism existed in Peru and did not focus on the social issue, often participating in racism themselves. The concentration of wealth amongst elites in Lima through centralismo resulted with a history of systemic racism in Peru, with individuals in Lima basing their discrimination against rural individuals due to race and geographical location.
"Respect. No to racism" is an anti-racist, anti-discrimination, and tolerance-promoting campaign in Costa Rica's sports events, particularly in the football matches of the Liga FPD. The campaign aims to foster the integration of values in sports environments, with a primary focus on respect.
The Global Coalition Against Systemic Racism and for Reparations is an international platform whose purpose is to promote actions that confront and eliminate systemic racism and advocate for reparations through collaboration among public, private, political, social, business, cultural, and productive entities, as well as international organizations.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)"'"En la vida diaria, el racismo se expresa sobre todo en chistes, comentarios y frases que ridiculizan, minusvaloran o desprecian a las personas por su tono de piel, su historia, su cultura, sus tradiciones o su condición social. Frases como "El negrito en el arroz", que califica como desagradable el tono de piel oscura; "Trabajar como negro", que refleja la condición de esclavo y sobreexplotación a la que estuvieron sometidos los pueblos africanos; "Cena de negros", que indica que las personas de este tono de piel se comportan de manera violenta o poco amable, son algunos ejemplos de esas prácticas, que muchas veces se reproducen de manera irreflexiva"