Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico | |||||||
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Part of Spanish American wars of independence | |||||||
Battle of Pueblo Viejo | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
First Mexican Empire (1821–23) Provisional Government (1823–24) First Mexican Republic (1824–29) | Spanish Empire | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Agustín I Miguel Barragán Antonio López de Santa Anna Manuel Mier y Terán | Ferdinand VII Isidro Barradas José María Coppinger Melitón Pérez del Camino | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
4,500 (1829) | 3,500 (1829) | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
135 killed in combat (1829) | 215 killed in combat (1829) and 1,708 killed by diseases and in combat in the Tampico expedition |
Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico were efforts by the Spanish government to regain possession of its former colony of New Spain, resulting in episodes of war comprised in clashes between the newly born Mexican nation and Spain. The designation mainly covers two periods: the first attempts occurred from 1821 to 1825 and involved the defense of Mexico's territorial waters, while the second period had two stages, including the Mexican expansion plan to take the Spanish-held island of Cuba between 1826 and 1828 and the 1829 expedition of Spanish General Isidro Barradas, which landed on Mexican soil with the object of reconquering Mexican territory. Although the Spanish never regained control of the country, they damaged the fledgling Mexican economy.
The newly independent nation of Mexico was in dire straits after eleven years of fighting its War of Independence. There were no clear plans or guidelines established by the revolutionaries, and internal struggles by different factions for control of the government ensued. Mexico suffered a complete lack of funds to administer a country of over 4.5 million km2 and faced the threats of emerging internal rebellions and of invasion by Spanish forces from their base in nearby Cuba.
Mexican independence was officially achieved on September 27, 1821, under the Treaty of Córdoba. Spain did not recognize the treaties, arguing that the viceroy Juan O'Donojú had no authority to recognize the independence of any overseas province. [1] This situation was dangerous to the newly acquired independent status of the nation, which had not yet been recognized by any of the European powers that could support it, and the threat of Spanish reconquest was a constant worry to the leaders of the nascent regime. On May 13, 1822, decrees were issued by the government to imprison anyone who conspired against Mexico's independence. [2]
In addition to its other problems, the main port of entry to the country, San Juan de Ulúa, remained under Spanish domination.
General José García Dávila, the governor representing the Spanish Crown in Veracruz, and General Antonio López de Santa Anna had been ordered to surrender the port to the Mexicans; however, the night before the appointed day of October 26, 1821, Gen. Dávila moved all the artillery and ammunition from the port, as well as 200 infantry soldiers, and over 90 thousand pesos belonging to the Spanish government, to the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa. Soon the number of soldiers increased to 2,000 with troops sent by Spain from Cuba to launch the reconquest of Mexico. Since the Mexican forces did not have the weapons and ships to counter these reinforcements, the putative Emperor of Mexico, Agustín de Iturbide, opted for negotiations with the Spanish. Although no agreement was reached, an uneasy peace continued between the two parties.
The arrival of then Brigadier General Antonio López de Santa Anna to the government of the city on September 10, 1822, marks another episode of negotiations between the Mexican authorities of Veracruz and the Spanish of San Juan de Ulúa; these became critical, even more so when the Spanish government relieved Gen. Davila of his charge and replaced him with Brigadier General Francisco Lemaur. [3] The Mexican government, aware of the lack of boats, decided to create a naval force to defeat the Spanish garrison occupying Ulúa, mainly through a blockade. In 1822 it acquired from the United States and the United Kingdom the first ships of the Mexican Navy. [4]
Despite internal political problems in Mexico resulting from the recent overthrow of the short-lived Mexican Empire and the establishment of the Provisional Government, the sight of the Mexicans remained fixed on Ulúa. The talks were suspended when on September 25, 1823, the Spanish bombarded the port of Veracruz, causing the displacement of more than 6,000 civilians who left the city. [5]
After the Spanish bombardment of the port, the Mexican government resolved to end the Spanish assaults. Although Mexico lacked a proper navy, on October 8, 1823, a blockade of San Juan de Ulúa was planned. Secretary of War and Navy José Joaquín de Herrera made a speech before the First Congress of Mexico expressing the urgency of acquiring more warships to blockade and attack the Spanish troops who occupied the fortress.
On January 28, 1825, General Francisco Lemaur was relieved of command of San Juan de Ulúa by José Coppinger. On July 27, 1825, the frigate captain Pedro Sainz de Baranda was appointed commander of the Navy in the port of Veracruz; he immediately began the reorganization of the squadron commissioned to blockade San Juan De Ulúa. [6]
The blockade was successful, and compelled the Spanish forces, who received little aid from Havana, to surrender. Coppinger requested the suspension of hostilities and negotiations for the surrender of his forces. The fighting, begun on October 26, 1821, was concluded by the Mexican Navy when it defeated the last Spanish stronghold in Mexico on November 23, 1825. [7]
Despite the victory of Mexico over the last Spanish bastion in Ulúa, Spain refused to recognize the Treaty of Córdoba and hence the independence of Mexico.
The Mexican government, led by Guadalupe Victoria, came to the conclusion that Spain, by its refusal to recognize the treaties, still posed a threat, and could use Cuba as a platform to launch a campaign to recover Mexico. Lucas Alamán, who was then the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs, assessed the threat posed by the military forces stationed in Cuba to Mexico. Since 1824, Alaman had held the belief that Mexico should seize Cuba, arguing that "Cuba without Mexico is aimed at imperialist yoke; Mexico without Cuba is a prisoner of the Gulf of Mexico." He believed that the Mexican forces, with the support of foreign powers such as France or Britain (which would be the first European power to recognize the independence of Mexico on July 16, 1836), could overcome the Spanish in Cuba. [8]
The United States insisted upon the retention of Cuba by the Spanish government. To advance its ambitions to control the island and to prevent Spanish reconquest of the mainland, the Mexican government employed Commodore David Porter of the United States to command the Mexican navy in an attack on the maritime lines of Spain patrolling the island of Cuba. This was an effort to protect the Mexican territorial sea and ensure the continued success of its independence movement on all fronts. Thus began patrols of the Mexican squadron in Spanish waters, which culminated in the unsuccessful Battle of Mariel on February 10, 1828, in which Porter commanded the brig Guerrero, mounting 22 guns, and one of the finest vessels in the small Mexican Navy. Porter's son, midshipman David Dixon Porter, later a Union hero of the American Civil War, was slightly wounded. He was among the survivors who surrendered and were imprisoned in Havana until they could be exchanged. Commodore Porter chose not to risk his son again, and sent him back to the United States by way of New Orleans. [9]
One year after the Battle of Mariel, there was a new attempt at reconquest by Spain, from Cuba, confirming the suspicions of the Mexican authorities. Spain appointed Gen. Isidro Barradas, who left the port with 3,586 soldiers with the name "Spearhead Division" and on July 5, went to Mexico. The fleet consisted of a flagship, called the Sovereign, two frigates, two gunships and 15 transport ships, each commanded by Admiral Laborde.
On July 26, 1829, the fleet arrived in Cabo Rojo, near Tampico (State of Tamaulipas), and from there began its operations on the 27th, trying to land 750 troops and 25 boats. The expedition began their advance towards Tampico while the boats were moored at the Pánuco River. The Battle of Pueblo Viejo, which took place on September 10-11, marked the end of the Spanish conquest attempts in Mexico. General Isidro Barradas signed the capitulation of Pueblo Viejo, in the presence of generals Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Manuel de Mier y Terán, and Felipe de la Garza. [10]
On December 28, 1836, Spain recognized the independence of Mexico under the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty, signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner Miguel Santa María and the Spanish state minister José María Calatrava. [11] [12] Mexico was the first former colony whose independence was recognized by Spain; the second was Ecuador on February 16, 1840.
The Pastry War, also known as the first French intervention in Mexico or the first Franco-Mexican war (1838–1839), began in November 1838 with the naval blockade of some Mexican ports and the capture of the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa in the port of Veracruz by French forces sent by King Louis Philippe I. It ended in March 1839 with a British-brokered peace. The intervention followed many claims by French nationals of losses due to unrest in Mexico. This would be the first of two French invasions of Mexico; a second, larger intervention would take place in the 1860s.
San Juan de Ulúa, now known as Castle of San Juan de Ulúa, is a large complex of fortresses, prisons and one former palace on an island of the same name in the Gulf of Mexico overlooking the seaport of Veracruz, Mexico. Juan de Grijalva's 1518 expedition named the island. On March 30, 1519, Hernan Cortés met with Tendile and Pitalpitoque, emissaries from Moctezuma II's Aztec Empire.
Guadalupe Victoria, born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix, was a Mexican general and politician who fought for independence against the Spanish Empire in the Mexican War of Independence and after the adoption of the Constitution of 1824, was elected as the first president of the United Mexican States. He was a deputy in the Mexican Chamber of Deputies for Durango and a member of the Supreme Executive Power following the downfall of the First Mexican Empire, which was followed by the 1824 Constitution and his presidency. He later served as Governor of Puebla.
The Plan of Iguala, also known as The Plan of the Three Guarantees or Act of Independence of North America, was a revolutionary proclamation promulgated on 24 February 1821, in the final stage of the Mexican War of Independence from Spain. The Plan stated that Mexico was to become a constitutional monarchy, whose sole official religion would be Roman Catholicism, in which the Peninsulares and Creoles of Mexico would enjoy equal political and social rights. It took its name from the city of Iguala in the modern-day state of Guerrero.
Veracruz, also known as Heroica Veracruz, is a major port city and municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico and the most populous city in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city is located along the coast in the central part of the state, 90 km (56 mi) southeast of the state capital Xalapa.
Juan José Ruiz de Apodaca y Eliza, 1st Count of Venadito, OIC, OSH, KOC was a Spanish Navy officer, nobleman and colonial administrator who served as the viceroy of New Spain from 20 September 1816 to 5 July 1821 during the Mexican War of Independence.
Miguel Francisco Barragán Andrade was a Mexican soldier and politician who served as interim president of Mexico in 1836. He had previously served as Governor of Veracruz, and gained national fame for the capture of the Fortress of San Juan de Ulúa in 1824, through which Spanish military presence was finally expelled from Mexico.
Juan José Rafael Teodomiro de O'Donojú y O'Ryan was a Spanish-Irish military officer, diplomat and Viceroy of New Spain (Mexico) from 21 July 1821 to 28 September 1821 during the Mexican War of Independence. He was the last Viceroy of New Spain.
Pedro de Castro y Figueroa y Salazar, 1st Duke of la Conquista, 1st Marquess of Gracia Real, KOS, OSJ was a Spanish military officer and viceroy of New Spain.
Roberto Simpson Winthrop, was a sailor of English origin, nationalized Chilean, who made a career in the Chilean Navy from 1818 and reached the rank of rear-admiral in 1852. Distinguished himself during the Spanish American wars of independence and the War of the Confederation. He was also founder of the Simpson family in Chile, initiator of the first hydrographic works in the country, senator and diplomat.
José María Coppinger was a Spanish soldier who served in the infantry of the Royal Spanish Army (Ejército de Tierra) and governed East Florida (1816–1821) and several areas in Cuba including Pinar Del Río, Bayamo, the Cuatro Villas and Trinidad at various times between 1801 and 1834. He was also a member of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Ferdinand and San Hermenegildo.
In attempts to retain or re-assert control over its colonies in America, the Spanish Empire deployed several expeditionary forces during and after the Spanish American wars of independence. The largest of these forces, known as "the expeditionary army of Costa Firme", and consisting of over 10,000 troops under General Morillo, undertook the Spanish reconquest of New Granada (1815–16). Forces were also sent to New Spain between 1812 and 1817. Later, after Mexican independence in 1821, a Spanish garrison was sent from Cuba to occupy Spain's last Mexican outpost, the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa; this force remained there until surrendering in 1825. Finally, a force under Isidro Barradas Valdés attempted to regain control of Mexico in 1829.
The nations of Cuba and Mexico have had uninterrupted diplomatic relations since their establishment in 1902. Both nations are members of the Association of Caribbean States, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, Latin American Integration Association, Organization of Ibero-American States, and the United Nations.
In the history of Mexico, the Plan of Veracruz was a call to revolt against Emperor of Mexico Augustín de Iturbide, proclaimed by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna at the port of Mexico on December 2, 1822. It was ratified on December 6.
In the history of Mexico, the Plan of Veracruz was a proclamation released on January 2, 1832, by the military garrison of Veracruz. The initial goal was simply to remove unpopular ministers from the cabinet of President Anastasio Bustamante, but later expanded into a year-long civil war within the First Mexican Republic that ended with the ousting of Bustamente and the recognition of Manuel Gómez Pedraza as president.
The Black Eagle Party, also known as the Great Legion of the Black Eagle, was a Mexican pro-independence Masonic lodge opposing the Spaniards and the intervention of the Catholic Church in society. The party was established on May 30, 1823, by Guadalupe Victoria and Simón de Chávez in Puente del Rey, Veracruz, Mexico. The organization's main goal was facilitating the freedom of the Americas. The organization was considered to be the first political party founded in independent Mexico before later merging into the Liberal Party.
Pedro Sáinz de Baranda y Borreiro was a naval officer, industrialist, and liberal politician who founded the Mexican Navy and led the naval blockade of Veracruz, which ended with the Spanish surrendering San Juan de Ulua Fort in 1825, the last portion of Mexican territory still in Spanish hands. This event is recognized as the culmination of the Mexican War of Independence.
The Battle of Mariel was a small-scale naval engagement fought between the First Mexican Republic and the Spanish Empire near the Cuban port town of Mariel. The battle resulted in a Spanish victory, with the Mexican navy losing the brig Guerrero.
The Battle of Tampico, also referred to as the Barradas Expedition, was a series of military engagements between the First Mexican Republic and Spain. Fought from July to September 1829 and culminating on 11 September, the battle was part of several Spanish attempts to re-establish control over Mexico. The battle was a major victory for Mexico and marked the final major battle between Spain and its former colony.
Francisco Fernández y Félix, better known as Francisco Victoria, was an insurgent of the Mexican War of Independence. Being a republican and federalist ideologue, he fought against the imperialist regime of Agustín de Iturbide and the centralist regime of Anastasio Bustamante.