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Following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain (which united England and Scotland) in 1707, British foreign relations largely continued those of the Kingdom of England. British foreign policy initially focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe, with no one country achieving dominance over the affairs of the continent. This policy remained a major justification for Britain's wars against Napoleon, and for British involvement in the First and Second World Wars. Secondly Britain continued the expansion of its colonial "First British Empire" by migration and investment.
France was the chief enemy until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. It had a much larger population and a more powerful army, but a weaker navy. The British were generally successful in their many wars. The notable exception, the American War of Independence (1775–1783), saw Britain, without any major allies, defeated by the American colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and (indirectly) Spain. A favoured British diplomatic strategy involved subsidising the armies of continental allies (such as Prussia), thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat, eventually with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance of the seas was vital to the formation and maintaining of the British Empire, which was achieved through the support of a navy larger than the next two largest navies combined, prior to 1920. The British generally stood alone until the early 20th century, when it became friendly with the U.S. and made alliances with Japan, France and Russia and Germany former antagonist now ally.
The 100 years were generally peaceful—a sort of Pax Britannica enforced by the Royal Navy. There were two important wars, both limited in scope. The Crimean War (1853–1856) saw the defeat of Russia and its threat to the Ottoman Empire. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) saw the defeat of the two Boer republics in South Africa and Boxer Rebellion happen the same year. London became the world's financial centre, and commercial enterprise expanded across the globe. The "Second British Empire" was built with a base in Asia (especially India) and Africa.
After 1918 Britain was a "troubled giant" that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which frequently exercised its financial superiority.[1] The main themes of British foreign policy included a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920, where Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge on Germany.[2] He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany further, as in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.[3][4] Furthermore, Britain obtained "mandates" that allowed it and its dominions to govern most of the former German and Ottoman colonies.[5]
Britain became an active member of the new League of Nations, but its list of major achievements was slight.[6][7]
Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a major role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament agreements had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany.[8]
Britain was partially successful in negotiating better terms with United States regarding the large war loans which Britain was obliged to repay.[9] Britain supported the international solution to German reparations through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. After the Dawes Plan had helped stabilize Germany's currency and lowered its annual payments, Germany was able to pay its annual reparations using money borrowed from New York banks, and Britain used the money received to pay Washington.[10] The Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain revived Imperial Preference, which meant low tariffs within the British Empire and higher barriers to trade with outside countries. The flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931.
In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and suspicious foreign policy based on pacifism. Its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. Labour stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War and the highly emotional tensions regarding nationalism and the boundaries of countries. Nevertheless, party leaderRamsay MacDonald devoted much of his attention to European policies.[11]
Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, and Mussolini pictured before signing the 1938 Munich Agreement, which gave the Sudetenland to Nazi Germany.
Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the First World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era. This led directly to the appeasement of dictators (notably of Mussolini and of Hitler) in order to avoid their threats of war.[12]
The challenge came from those dictators, first from Benito Mussolini, Duce of Italy, then from Adolf Hitler, Führer of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it failed to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy involved "appeasing" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of September 1938.[13] Instead of satiation, Hitler menaced Poland, and at last Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain dropped appeasement and stood firm in promising to defend Poland (31 March 1939). Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe (23 August 1939); when Germany did invade Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war, and the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.[14]
Having signed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in August 1939, Britain and France declared war against Germany in September 1939 in response to Germany's invasion of Poland. This declaration included the Crown colonies and India, which Britain directly controlled. The dominions were independent in foreign policy, though all quickly entered the war against Germany. After the French defeat in June 1940, Britain and its empire stood alone in combat against Germany, until June 1941. The United States gave diplomatic, financial and material support, starting in 1940, especially through Lend Lease, which began in 1941 and attain full strength during 1943. In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and agreed on the Atlantic Charter, which proclaimed "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous and would be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.[15]
Starting in December 1941, Japan overran British possessions in Asia, including Hong Kong, Malaya, and especially the key base at Singapore. Japan then marched into Burma, headed toward India. Churchill's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe, but the rapid defeats irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power. The realisation that Britain could not defend them pushed Australia and New Zealand into permanent close ties with the United States.[16]
Economically in dire straits in 1945 (saddled with debt and dealing with widespread destruction of its infrastructure), Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments. It pursued an alternate role as an active participant in the Cold War against communism, especially as a founding member of NATO in 1949.[17]
The British had built up a very large worldwide Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the home economy, and after 1945 the British Empire rapidly began to disintegrate, with all the major colonies gaining independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower was gone in the face of the United States and the Soviet Union. Most former colonies joined the "Commonwealth of Nations", an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK. However it attempted no major collective policies.[18][19] The last major colony, Hong Kong, was handed over to China in 1997.[20] Fourteen British Overseas Territories maintain a constitutional link to the UK, but are not part of the country per se.[21]
Britain slashed its involvements in the Middle East after the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United States, France, and Germany, through the NATO military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common Market in 1973; which became the European Union in 1993.[22] However it did not merge financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which partly isolated it from the Euro area crisis.[23] In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU.[24][25]
Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the 1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for establishment of the International Criminal Court, debt relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free trade.[26] The British approach has been described as "spread the right norms and sustain NATO".[27]
Three key motifs of Tony Blair's 10-year premiership were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain's role in Europe have been central to British foreign policy since the Second World War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.
The GREAT campaign of 2012 was one of the most ambitious national promotion efforts ever undertaken by any major nation. It was scheduled take maximum advantage of the worldwide attention to the Summer Olympics in London. The goals were to make British more culture visible in order to stimulate trade, investment and tourism. The government partnered with key leaders in culture, business, diplomacy and education. The campaign unified many themes and targets, including business meetings; scholarly conventions; recreational vehicle dealers; parks and campgrounds; convention and visitors bureaus; hotels; bed and breakfast inns; casinos; and hotels.[29][30]
In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its approach to foreign policy by saying:[31]
For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... [W]e have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8 and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.
The UK began establishing air and naval facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Oman in 2014–15.[32][33][34][35] The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives of the UK government.[36][37] Edward Longinotti notes how current British defence policy is grappling with how to accommodate two major commitments, to Europe and to an ‘east of Suez’ global military strategy, within a modest defence budget that can only fund one. He points out that Britain's December 2014 agreement to open a permanent naval base in Bahrain underlines its gradual re-commitment east of Suez.[38] By some measures, Britain remains the second most powerful country in the world by virtue of its soft power and "logistical capability to deploy, support and sustain [military] forces overseas in large numbers."[39] Although commentators have questioned the need for global power projection,[40] the concept of “Global Britain” put forward by the Conservative government in 2019 signalled more military activity in the Middle East and Pacific, outside of NATO's traditional sphere of influence.[41][42]
At the end of January 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union, with a subsequent trade agreement with the EU in effect from 1 January 2021, setting out the terms of the UK-EU economic relationship and what abilities the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office can use in foreign relations related to trade.
Diplomatic relations
British diplomatic relations date back to the 13th century.[43] The United Kingdom has established diplomatic relations with all United Nations members, aside from Bhutan, in addition to 2 Non-UN member states: Holy See, and Kosovo. Moreover, the UK established official relations with the Sovereign Military Order of Malta on 9 October 2024.[44] The following table lists the date from which diplomatic relations were established with other countries:
List of diplomatic relations of the United Kingdom
The Central African Republic does not maintain an embassy in the UK.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to the Central African Republic through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its embassy in Kinshasa, DR Congo.[234]
Equatorial Guinea does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom; the Equatoguinean government closed its embassy in London.[244]
The United Kingdom is not accredited to Equatorial Guinea through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its high commission in Yaoundé, Cameroon.[245]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic Co-operation Pact,[218] and the United Nations.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Ethiopia through its embassy in Addis Ababa.[254]
The UK governed Ethiopia from 1941 to 1942. The UK continued to governed the regions of Ogaden and Haud from 1941, until both territories were relinquished to Ethiopia in 1948 and 1955 respectively.[255]
Both countries share common membership of the United Nations. Bilaterally the two countries have a Development Partnership,[236] a Double Taxation Convention,[256] and an Investment Agreement.[257]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Libya through its embassy in Tripoli.[288]
The UK governed Libya from 1942 to 1951, when Libya gained full independence.
Both countries share common membership of the United Nations. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement,[289] and have signed an Investment Agreement.[290]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Mauritania through its embassy in Nouakchott.[299]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic Co-operation Pact,[218] the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Development Partnership.[236]
The Republic of the Congo maintains an embassy in London.[319]
The United Kingdom is not accredited to the Republic of the Congo through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its embassy in Kinshasa, DR Congo.[320]
São Tomé and Príncipe does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to São Tomé and Príncipe through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its embassy in Luanda, Angola.[324]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[325] and the United Nations.
The UK governed Somaliland from 1884 to 1940 and 1941–1960, Somaliland achieved full independence on 26 June 1960. The UK also governed the remaining territory of modern Somalia from 1941 to 1950, until it became an Italian Trust Territory. Both of these territories unified on the 1 July 1960 to become Somalia.
Both countries share common membership of the United Nations. Bilaterally the two countries have a Development Partnership,[236] and a Strategic Partnership.[339]
The United Kingdom does not have a diplomatic mission in Somaliland.
The UK governed Somaliland from 1884 to 1940 and 1941–1960, Somaliland achieved full independence on 26 June 1960. The Republic of Somaliland declared independence from Somalia on 18 May 1991.
The UK governed Tanganyika from 1916 to 1961, when Tanganyika achieved full independence; the UK governed Zanzibar from 1890 to 1963, when Zanzibar achieved full independence. Both countries unified on 26 April 1964 to become Tanzania.
The United Kingdom was accredited to Afghanistan through its embassy in Kabul. Following the fall of Kabul, the embassy has been co-located with the British Embassy in Doha, Qatar.[369]
The UK governed Afghanistan from 1879–1919, when Afghanistan achieved full independence.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to Palestine through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its Consulate General in Jerusalem, Israel.[488]
The UK governed Palestine from 1921 until 1948, when it achieved full independence.
The United Kingdom is accredited to East Timor from its embassy in Jakarta; there is no British embassy in Timor-Leste.[529] On 29 February 2024, the UK announced its intentions to re-open an embassy in Dili.[118]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Turkey through its embassy in Ankara, a consulate general in Istanbul, and an honorary vice consulate in Antalya. The United Kingdom also has a consulate in İzmir, and honorary consulates in Bodrum, Fethiye, and Marmaris.[530]
The UK is accredited to Turkmenistan through its embassy in Ashgabat.[534]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE, the United Nations, and the World Health Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Development Partnership,[236] a Double Taxation Convention,[535] and an Investment Agreement.[536]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Uzbekistan through its embassy in Tashkent.[544]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE, and the United Nations. Bilaterally the two countries have a Development Partnership,[236] a Double Taxation Agreement,[545] and a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement.[546]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Belarus through its embassy in Minsk.[568]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE, and the United Nations. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement,[569] and an Investment Agreement.[570]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Ireland through its an embassy in Dublin.[629]
The UK governed Ireland from the 12th century until 1800, when it was incorporated into the United Kingdom. The Republic of Ireland achieved full independence on the 6 December 1922.[102]
Romania maintains an embassy in London, and consulate generals in Edinburgh and Manchester. Romania also maintains honorary consulates in Hirwaun, Leeds, Morpeth-Newcastle and Southampton.[680]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Romania through its embassy in Bucharest.[681]
Switzerland maintains an embassy in London, an honorary consulate general in Edniburgh, and honorary consulates in Belfast, Bermuda, Cardiff, the Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, and Manchester.[88]
The United Kingdom is accredited to Switzerland through its embassy in Bern.[708]
See Cuba–United Kingdom relationsForeign Office Minister Hugo Swire with Cuban Ambassador to the UK Esther Gloria Armenteros Cárdenas in London, December 2012.
United Kingdom is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Havana.[741]
Both countries share common membership of the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have an Investment Agreement,[742] and a Political Dialogue and Co-operation Agreement.[743]
Dominica maintains a high commission in London.[744]
The United Kingdom is not accredited to Dominica through a high commission; the UK develops relations through its high commission in Bridgetown, Barbados.[745]
The UK governed Dominica from 1763 to 1978, when Dominica achieved full independence.
Saint Kitts and Nevis maintains a high commission in London.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Saint Kitts and Nevis from its high commission in Bridgetown; there is no British high commission in Saint Kitts and Nevis.[780]
The UK governed Saint Kitts and Nevis from the 17th century to 1983, when Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved full independence.
The UK governed Saint Vincent and the Grenadines as part of the Windward Islands colony from 1833 to 1979, when Saint Vincent and the Grenadines achieved full independence.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Australia through its high commission in Canberra, the UK also maintains consulate generals in Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney, additionally the United Kingdom maintains a consulate in Perth.[792]
The UK governed Australia from the late 18th century until 1942, when Australia achieved full independence.
The Cook Islands does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to the Cook Islands through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its high commission in Wellington, New Zealand.[797]
The UK governed the Cook Islands from 1888 until 1901, when the Cook Islands were transferred to New Zealand.[798]
The Marshall Islands does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to the Marshall Islands through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its high commission in Suva, Fiji.[805]
Nauru does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to Nauru through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its high commission in Honiara, Solomon Islands.[807]
The UK officially governed Nauru jointly with Australia and New Zealand from 1914 until 1968, when Nauru achieved full independence.
Niue does not maintain an embassy in the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is not accredited to Niue through an embassy; the UK develops relations through its high commission in Wellington, New Zealand.[797]
The UK governed Niue from 1900 until 1901, when Niue was transferred to New Zealand.
The United Kingdom claims the area between 20°W and 80°W as a British Overseas Territory. The area between 25°W and 53°W overlaps Argentina's claim. The area between 74°W and 80°W overlaps Chile's claim. The area between 53°W and 74°W overlaps the claims of both Argentina and Chile.[867]
The United Kingdom de facto administers the archipelago as the British Indian Ocean Territory. Mauritius claims the islands. On 22 May 2025, Mauritius and the United Kingdom signed a deal to hand sovereignty over to Mauritius; the dispute will end once the deal is ratified by both parties.[868]
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