Its geopolitical position is defined by its geographical location, situated between Russia and China, relying on trade with both sides. Officially, it maintains a neutral stance on international matters.[2] It has a modest number of missions abroad.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Mongolia maintains diplomatic relations with:
Diplomatic relations between Egypt and Mongolia were established in 1964.[7]Cairo currently hosts Mongolia's only embassy on the African continent.[8][9] In 2001, Mongolia sent policemen to Egypt to attend trainings sessions on anti-terrorism and the prevention of drug trafficking.[10]Mongolian PresidentNatsagiin Bagabandi and his wife Azadsurengiin Oyunbileg paid an official visit to Egypt in April 2004, during which he invited Egyptian PresidentHosni Mubarak to pay him a return visit in Mongolia.[11] Almost exactly one year later, Egyptian Foreign MinisterAhmed Aboul Gheit visited Mongolia, during which he began the planning of mutual visits of the ministers of finance of the two countries.[12]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on November 30, 1973. Canada is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia has an embassy in Ottawa, and in 2002 opened an honorary consulate in Toronto. Though Canada and Mongolia established diplomatic ties in 1973, ad hoc linkages and minor activities occurred between the two countries mainly through the Canada-Mongolia Society, which disbanded in 1980. When Mongolia formed a democratic government in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Canada began to support Mongolia with donor activities through the International Development Research Centre, Canadian International Development Agency and several non-governmental organizations.[13]
The U.S. government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not a resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President George W. Bush in July 2004. President Bush, Mrs. Bush, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Mongolia in November 2005. It was the first ever visit of a U.S. President to Mongolia.[22][23] Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld visited in October 2005 and Speaker of the House of Representatives Dennis Hastert visited Mongolia in August 2005. Agriculture Secretary Johanns led a presidential delegation in July 2006 in conjunction with Mongolia's celebration of its 800th anniversary. President Enkhbayar visited the White House in October 2007 and the two presidents signed the Millennium Challenge Compact for Mongolia.
In 2008, the IRS presented a discussion of US Federal income tax to Director General Zorig Luvsandash from the General Department of National Taxation of the Republic of Mongolia.
In the Post–Cold War era, China has taken major steps to normalize its relationship with Mongolia, emphasizing its respect for Mongolia's sovereignty and independence. In 1994, Chinese PremierLi Peng signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation.[25] China has become Mongolia's biggest trade partner and source of foreign investment as well as the destination for 48% of Mongolian exports.[26] Bilateral trade reached US$1.13 billion by the first nine months of 2007, registering an increase of 90% from 2006.[27] China offered to allow the use of its Tianjin port to give Mongolia and its goods access to trade with the Asia Pacific region.[26] China also expanded its investments in Mongolia's mining industries, seeking to develop the country's natural resources industry.[26][27] Mongolia and China have stepped up cooperation on fighting terrorism and bolstering regional security. China is likely to support Mongolia's membership in to the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[26]
As the Republic of China did not recognize Mongolia until 1945, both countries did not exchange any diplomats between 1946 and 1949, and Mongolia recognized the People's Republic of China in 1949, there have never been formal diplomatic relations between Mongolia and the Republic of China. Until the 1990s, the Republic of China still considered Mongolia part of its territory. The Republic of China (currently on Taiwan) has not renounced claim to Mongolia as one of its provinces, primarily out of concern that such a move would be viewed as a precursor to renouncing sovereignty over all of Mainland China and Taiwan independence. In 2002 several ROC officials and government agencies passed laws and made strong statements recognizing Mongolia's sovereignty over the area (unofficially). "Outer Mongolia" was removed from the ROC's official maps and a representative office was established in Ulaanbaatar.
Citizens of the Republic of China may travel to Mongolia using Republic of China passports (as is the case for most countries except the PRC), but Mongolian visas are stapled into (and not applied directly onto) the passport and Mongolian immigration authorities stamp the stapled visa instead of the passport. This is also the case for Hong Kong visas and entry/exit stamps.
Japan has been a major ally of Mongolia since the advent of democracy in 1991, and remains the largest single donor. Japanese aid and loans to Mongolia between 1991 and 2003 equal $1.2 billion, equaling 70 percent of total aid and loans.
The two countries established a cultural exchange dialogue in 1974, a trade agreement in 1990, an air relations agreement in 1993, and an investment agreement in 2003. Trade between Mongolia and Japan in the first ten months of 2004 was $83.3 million. In addition, about 500 Mongolian students study in Japan.
Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj visited Japan in 2011, and the two countries made a joint announcement regarding a strategic alliance.
In 1991, Japanese Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu visited Mongolia, becoming the first to do so. Mongolian President Natsagiin Bagabandi first visited Japan in 1998. Mongolia has an embassy in Tokyo, established in 1973. Japan has an embassy in Ulaanbaatar.
Mongolia has an embassy in North Korea. Relations date back to 1948, when Mongolia recognised Kim Il Sung's Soviet-backed government in the North. North Korean refugees are a delicate issue between the two governments. In 2005, South Korean charity groups received from the Mongolian government an allocation of 1.3 square kilometres of land at an unspecified location 40 kilometres outside of Ulaanbaatar to establish a refugee camp.[28] However, as of November 2006, Miyeegombyn Enkhbold, Mongolia's prime minister, officially denied the existence of such camps. One scholar estimated that 500 North Korean refugees enter Mongolia each month, along with some legal migrant labourers who come under an inter-governmental agreement to work in light industry and infrastructure projects.[29]
Mongolians in South Korea form the largest population of Mongolian citizens abroad.. Their numbers were estimated at 33,000 as of 2008.
South Korea established an embassy in Ulaanbaatar in 1990.[30] Mongolia established its embassy in Seoul in 1991. The relationship between the two countries has been defined by the Joint Mongolia-South Korean notice made during the visit of South Korean president Kim Dae-jung to Mongolia in 1990.
Indonesia and Mongolia formally established diplomatic relations in 1956, marked by President Sukarno's state visit to Ulaanbaatar in the same year.[32]
For diplomatic affairs, the Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia in Beijing, China, doubles as the Indonesian representative for Mongolia.[33] Meanwhile, Mongolia has an embassy in Jakarta and honorary consulates in Jakarta and Surabaya.[34][35]
Mongolia did not present an ambassador to Malaysia for seven years due to the murder of a Mongolian citizen in the country, but later decided to appoint an ambassador in 2014.[36]
The two countries established diplomatic ties in 1954.[39] Mongolia has an embassy in Vietnam. The countries signed a Friendship and Cooperation Treaty in 1961, renewed it in 1979, and signed a new one in 1995.[39] On 13 January 2003, the countries signed an 8-point cooperative document committing to cooperation between the two governments and their legislative bodies, replacing an earlier document signed in 1998.[40]
India established diplomatic relations in December 1955. India was the first country outside the Soviet bloc to establish diplomatic relations with Mongolia. Since then, there have been treaties of mutual friendship and cooperation between the two countries in 1973, 1994, 2001 and 2004.
In 2020, Mongolia signed a memorandum of understanding with Qatar to establish political consultations between the ministries of foreign affairs of both the countries.[44]
After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilisation of the Mongolian economy. The primary difficulties in developing fruitful coordination occurred because these new states were experiencing the same political and economic restructuring as Mongolia. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation[25] establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000[25] in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. Putin visited Mongolia in September 2024, his first trip to an ICC member country since the court issued an arrest warrant for him over war crimes related to the deportation of Ukrainian children. Despite ICC obligations to detain him, Mongolia did not publicly respond to these calls.[45]
Ties between Mongolia and Syria were established on July 31, 1967, when both countries had socialist governments. Mongolian delegates (from the then-ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party) traveled to Syria in 1978, 1982, and 1985, while Syrian (Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party) delegates visited Mongolia in 1983 and 1986.
Uzbekistan is accredited to Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing, China.
Mongolia is accredited to Uzbekistan through its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.[48]
Europe
Mongolia seeks closer relations with countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favoured-nation status from the European Union (EU). During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former East German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid.
Bulgaria has an embassy in Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia has an embassy in Sofia. Diplomatic relations between the two counties were first initiated on 22 April 1950. Due to the similar ideological situation in both countries, their relations witnessed a steady development up until the 1990s. Bilateral relations somewhat deteriorated for the next ten years. Since 2001, they have been on a more positive track, with Bulgarian president Georgi Parvanov making an official visit to Ulaanbaatar in the summer of 2007. Until the beginning of the 1990s Bulgaria was Mongolia's 3rd biggest trading partner. Agricultural products and light industry goods were the main exports. Due to the subsequent economical and political changes in both countries the volume of trade shrank considerably. The volume of trade between Bulgaria and Mongolia totaled $2 million for 2008, with the main exporter being Bulgaria.[49]
Diplomatic relations between Mongolia and Czechoslovakia commenced on 25 April 1950. In the 1980s, Czechoslovakia was Mongolia's second-largest trading partner, behind the Soviet Union. After the 1992 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Mongolia reaffirmed its relations with the newly formed Czech Republic in 1993.[54] However, in the 1990s, trade volumes declined sharply, though the Czech Republic still accounts for about 1% of Mongolia's imports. The Embassy of the Czech Republic in Ulaanbaatar was formally reopened in 1999.[55] As of 2005, annual bilateral trade between the two countries was valued at US$5 million.[56] The Czech government has also been involved in various water supply development programs in Mongolia.
Greece is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing (China). Mongolia is represented in Greece through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria) and an honorary consulate in Athens.
Mongolia is represented in Ukraine through its embassy in Poland. An embassy previously existed in Kyiv but was closed and replaced with a consular department.
Ukraine is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in China.
The Mongolian Consulate was established in Canberra in March 1997. An embassy was established in October 2008.[70]Sükhbaataryn Batbold became the first head of government to visit Australia in 2011.
Australia opened its embassy in Ulaanbaatar in December 2015.[71]
Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 because of repeated threats to veto by the Republic of China, which considered Mongolia to be part of its territory (see China and the United Nations).
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