Established in 2002 pursuant to the multilateral Rome Statute, the ICC is considered by its proponents to be a major step toward justice,[3] and an innovation in international law and human rights.[4] However, it has faced a number of criticisms. Some governments have refused to recognise the court's assertion of jurisdiction, with other civil groups also accusing the court of bias, Eurocentrism and racism.[5] Others have also questioned the effectiveness of the court as a means of upholding international law.
History
The premises of the International Criminal Court in The Hague, Netherlands. The ICC moved into this building in December 2015.
Background
The establishment of an international tribunal to judge political leaders accused of international crimes was first proposed during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 following the First World War by the Commission of Responsibilities.[6][7] The issue was addressed again at a conference held in Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations in 1937, which resulted in the conclusion of the first convention stipulating the establishment of a permanent international court to try acts of international terrorism.[8] The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it and the convention never entered into force.[9]
Benjamin B. Ferencz, an investigator of Nazi war crimes after World War II and the Chief Prosecutor for the United States Army at the Einsatzgruppen trial, became a vocal advocate of the establishment of international rule of law and of an international criminal court. In his book Defining International Aggression: The Search for World Peace (1975), he advocated for the establishment of such a court.[13] Another leading proponent was Robert Kurt Woetzel, a German-born professor of international law, who co-edited Toward a Feasible International Criminal Court in 1970 and created the Foundation for the Establishment of an International Criminal Court in 1971.[14]
In 1994, the ILC presented its final draft statute for the International Criminal Court to the General Assembly and recommended that a conference be convened to negotiate a treaty that would serve as the Court's statute.[19]
To consider major substantive issues in the draft statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, which met twice in 1995.[20][21] After considering the Committee's report, the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of the ICC to prepare a consolidated draft text.[20][21]
From 1996 to 1998, six sessions of the Preparatory Committee were held at the United Nations headquarters in New York City, during which NGOs provided input and attended meetings under the umbrella organisation of the Coalition for the International Criminal Court (CICC). In January 1998, the Bureau and coordinators of the Preparatory Committee convened for an Inter-Sessional meeting in Zutphen in the Netherlands to technically consolidate and restructure the draft articles into a draft.[22]
Finally, the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, with the aim of finalizing the treaty to serve as the Court's statute. On 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to seven, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the U.S., and Yemen.[23]
Israel's opposition to the treaty stemmed from the inclusion in the list of war crimes "the action of transferring population into occupied territory".[24]
The UN General Assembly voted on 9 December 1999 and again on 12 December 2000 to endorse the ICC.[25][26]
Following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal Court was formally established.[27][28]
The first bench of 18 judges was elected by the Assembly of States Parties in February 2003. They were sworn in at the inaugural session of the Court on 11 March 2003.[29]
The Court issued its first arrest warrants on 8 July 2005,[30] and the first pre-trial hearings were held in 2006.[31]
The Court issued its first judgment in 2012 when it found Congolese rebel leader Thomas Lubanga Dyilo guilty of war crimes related to using child soldiers.[32] Lubanga was sentenced to 14 years in prison.[33]
In 2010, the states parties of the Rome Statute held the first Review Conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in Kampala, Uganda.[34] The Review Conference led to the adoption of two resolutions that amended the crimes under the jurisdiction of the Court. Resolution 5 amended Article 8 on war crimes, criminalizing the use of certain kinds of weapons in non-international conflicts whose use was already forbidden in international conflicts. Resolution 6, pursuant to Article 5(2) of the Statute, provided the definition and a procedure for jurisdiction over the crime of aggression.[35]
Organization
The ICC has four principal organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor and the Registry.[36][37]
The President is the most senior judge chosen by the eighteen judges in the Judicial Division.
The Judicial Division is composed of eighteen judges and hears cases before the Court.
The Office of the Prosecutor is headed by the Prosecutor, who investigates crimes and initiates criminal proceedings before the Judicial Division.
The Registry is headed by the Registrar and is charged with managing all the administrative functions of the ICC, including the headquarters, detention unit, and public defense office.
The ICC employs over 900 personnel from roughly 100 countries and conducts proceedings in English and French.[38]
Operation
The ICC began operations on 1 July 2002, upon the entry into force of the Rome Statute, a multilateral treaty that serves as the court's charter and governing document. States which become party to the Rome Statute become members of the ICC, serving on the Assembly of States Parties, which administers the court. As of October 2024, there are 125 ICC member states, 29 states have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute (including four who have withdrawn their signature) and 41 states have neither signed nor become parties to the Rome Statute.[39]
Intended to serve as the "court of last resort", the ICC complements existing national judicial systems and may exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute criminals.[40] It lacks universal territorial jurisdiction and may only investigate and prosecute crimes committed within member states, crimes committed by nationals of member states, or crimes in situations referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council.[41][42][43]
The ICC held its first hearing in 2006, concerning war crimes charges against Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, a Congolese warlord accused of recruiting child soldiers; his subsequent conviction in 2012 was the first in the court's history. The Office of the Prosecutor has opened twelve official investigations and is conducting an additional nine preliminary examinations.
The process to establish the court's jurisdiction may be "triggered" by any one of three possible sources: (1) a state party, (2) the Security Council or (3) a prosecutor. It is then up to the prosecutor acting proprio motu to initiate an investigation under the requirements of Article 15 of the Rome Statute. The procedure is slightly different when referred by a state party or the Security Council, in which cases the prosecutor does not need authorization of the Pre-Trial Chamber to initiate the investigation. Where there is a reasonable basis to proceed, it is mandatory for the prosecutor to initiate an investigation. The factors listed in Article 53 considered for reasonable basis include whether the case would be admissible, and whether there are substantial reasons to believe that an investigation would not serve the interests of justice (the latter stipulates balancing against the gravity of the crime and the interests of the victims).[57][58]
Structure
The ICC is governed by the Assembly of States Parties, which is made up of the states that are party to the Rome Statute.[59] The Assembly elects officials of the Court, approves its budget, and adopts amendments to the Rome Statute. The Court itself has four organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Registry.[60]
As of October2024[update], 125 states[61] are parties to the Statute of the Court, including all the countries of South America, nearly all of Europe, most of Oceania and roughly half of Africa.[62][63]Burundi and the Philippines were member states, but later withdrew effective 27 October 2017[64] and 17 March 2019,[65] respectively.[62][63] A further 29 countries[61] have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute.[62][63] The law of treaties obliges these states to refrain from "acts which would defeat the object and purpose" of the treaty until they declare they do not intend to become a party to the treaty.[66] Four signatory states—Israel in 2002,[67] the United States on 6 May 2002,[68][69] Sudan on 26 August 2008,[70] and Russia on 30 November 2016[71]—have informed the UN Secretary General that they no longer intend to become states parties and, as such, have no legal obligations arising from their signature of the Statute.[62][63]
Forty-one additional states[61] have neither signed nor acceded to the Rome Statute. Some of them, including China and India, are critical of the Court.[72][73]
Assembly
The Court's management oversight and legislative body, the Assembly of States Parties, consists of one representative from each state party.[74]:article 112 Each state party has one vote and "every effort" has to be made to reach decisions by consensus.[74]:article 112 If consensus cannot be reached, decisions are made by vote.[74]:article 112 The Assembly is presided over by a president and two vice-presidents, who are elected by the members to three-year terms.
The Assembly meets in full session once a year, alternating between New York and The Hague, and may also hold special sessions where circumstances require.[74]:article 112 Sessions are open to observer states and non-governmental organizations.[75]
The Assembly elects the judges and prosecutors, decides the Court's budget, adopts important texts (such as the Rules of Procedure and Evidence), and provides management oversight to the other organs of the Court.[59][74]:article 112 Article 46 of the Rome Statute allows the Assembly to remove from office a judge or prosecutor who "is found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties" or "is unable to exercise the functions required by this Statute".[74]:article 46
The states parties cannot interfere with the judicial functions of the Court.[76] Disputes concerning individual cases are settled by the Judicial Divisions.[76]
In 2010, Kampala, Uganda hosted the Assembly's Rome Statute Review Conference.[77]
Organs
The Court has four organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Division, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Registry.
Song Sang-hyun was President of the Court from 2009 to 2015.
The Presidency is responsible for the proper administration of the Court (apart from the Office of the Prosecutor).[78] It comprises the President and the First and Second Vice-Presidents—three judges of the Court who are elected to the Presidency by their fellow judges for a maximum of two three-year terms.[74]:article 38
As of March 2024, the President is Tomoko Akane from Japan, who took office on 11 March 2024, succeeding Piotr Hofmański. Her first term will expire in 2027.[79]
The Judicial Divisions consist of the 18 judges of the Court, organized into three chambers—the Pre-Trial Chamber, Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber — which carry out the judicial functions of the Court.[80] Judges are elected to the Court by the Assembly of States Parties.[80] They serve nine-year terms and are not generally eligible for re-election.[80] All judges must be nationals of states parties to the Rome Statute, and no two judges may be nationals of the same state.[74]:article 36 They must be "persons of high moral character, impartiality and integrity who possess the qualifications required in their respective States for appointment to the highest judicial offices".[74]:article 36
The Prosecutor or any person being investigated or prosecuted may request the disqualification of a judge from "any case in which his or her impartiality might reasonably be doubted on any ground".[74]:article 41 Any request for the disqualification of a judge from a particular case is decided by an absolute majority of the other judges.[74]:article 41 Judges may be removed from office if "found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties" or is unable to exercise his or her functions.[74]:article 46 The removal of a judge requires both a two-thirds majority of the other judges and a two-thirds majority of the states parties.[74]:article 46
The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) is responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions.[81] It is headed by the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, who is assisted by one or more Deputy Prosecutors.[60] The Rome Statute provides that the Office of the Prosecutor shall act independently;[74]:article 42 as such, no member of the Office may seek or act on instructions from any external source, such as states, international organisations, non-governmental organisations or individuals.[81]
The Prosecutor may open an investigation under three circumstances:[81]
when a situation is referred by a state party;
when a situation is referred by the United Nations Security Council, acting to address a threat to international peace and security; or
when the Pre-Trial Chamber authorises the prosecutor to open an investigation on the basis of information received from other sources, such as individuals or non-governmental organisations.
Any person being investigated or prosecuted may request the disqualification of a prosecutor from any case "in which their impartiality might reasonably be doubted on any ground".<[74]:article 42 Requests for the disqualification of prosecutors are decided by the Appeals Chamber.[74]:article 42 A prosecutor may be removed from office by an absolute majority of the states parties through a finding "to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties" or is unable to exercise his or her functions.[74]:article 46 One critic said there are "insufficient checks and balances on the authority of the ICC prosecutor and judges" and "insufficient protection against politicized prosecutions or other abuses".[82]Luis Moreno-Ocampo, chief ICC prosecutor, stressed in 2011 the importance of politics in prosecutions: "You cannot say al-Bashir is in London, arrest him. You need a political agreement."[83]Henry Kissinger says the checks and balances are so weak that the prosecutor "has virtually unlimited discretion in practice".[84]
Lead prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo of Argentina, in office from 2003 to 2012, was succeeded in the role by Fatou Bensouda of Gambia, who served from 16 June 2012 to 16 June 2021[85] (she was elected to the nine-year term on 12 December 2011).[81]
On 12 February 2021, British barrister Karim Khan was selected in a secret ballot against three other candidates to serve as lead prosecutor as of 16 June 2021. As British barrister, Khan had headed the United Nations' special investigative team when it looked into Islamic State crimes in Iraq. At the ICC, he had been lead defense counsel on cases from Kenya, Sudan and Libya.[86]
Policy Paper
A Policy Paper is a document occasionally published by the Office of the Prosecutor which puts forth the considerations given to the topics the office focuses on, and often the criteria for case selection.[87] While a policy paper does not give the Court jurisdiction over a new category of crimes, it promises what the Office of Prosecutor will consider when selecting cases in the upcoming term of service. OTP's policy papers are subject to revision.[88]
The five following Policy Papers have been published since the start of the ICC:
1 September 2007: Policy Paper on the Interest of Justice[89]
12 April 2010: Policy Paper on Victims' Participation[90]
1 November 2013: Policy Paper on Preliminary Examinations[91]
20 June 2014: Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes[92]
15 September 2016: Policy paper on case selection and prioritisation[93]
The Policy Paper published in September 2016 announced that the ICC will focus on environmental crimes when selecting the cases.[95] According to this document, the Office will give particular consideration to prosecuting Rome Statute crimes that are committed by means of, or that result in, "inter alia, the destruction of the environment, the illegal exploitation of natural resources or the illegal dispossession of land".[96]
This has been interpreted as a major shift in environmental law[97][98] and a move with significant effects.[99][100]
Registry
The Registry is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the administration and servicing of the Court.[101] This includes, among other things, "the administration of legal aid matters, court management, victims and witnesses matters, defence counsel, detention unit, and the traditional services provided by administrations in international organisations, such as finance, translation, building management, procurement and personnel".[101] The Registry is headed by the Registrar, who is elected by the judges to a five-year term.[60] As of April 2023 the Registrar is Osvaldo Zavala Giler.[102]
List of Registrars of the International Criminal Court
The Court's subject-matter jurisdiction means the crimes for which individuals can be prosecuted. Individuals can only be prosecuted for crimes that are listed in the Statute. The primary crimes are listed in article 5 of the Statute and defined in later articles: genocide (defined in article 6), crimes against humanity (defined in article 7), war crimes (defined in article 8), and crimes of aggression (defined in article 8 bis) (since 2018).[74]:article 5 In addition, article 70 defines offences against the administration of justice, which is a fifth category of crime for which individuals can be prosecuted.[107]
Genocide
Article 6 defines the crime of genocide as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group."[74]:article 6 There are five such acts which constitute crimes of genocide under article 6:[74]:articles 6(a)–6(e)
Killing members of a group
Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group
Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction
Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group
Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group
Article 7 defines crimes against humanity as acts "committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack".[74]:article 7 The article lists 16 such as individual crimes:[108]
Article 8 defines war crimes depending on whether an armed conflict is either international (which generally means it is fought between states) or non-international (which generally means that it is fought between non-state actors, such as rebel groups, or between a state and such non-state actors). In total there are 74 war crimes listed in article 8.[108] The most serious crimes constitute either grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which only apply to international conflicts,[108] and serious violations of article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which apply to non-international conflicts.[74]:article 8(2)(c)
Eleven crimes constitute grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and apply only to international armed conflicts:[108]
Willful killing
Torture
Inhumane treatment
Biological experiments
Willfully causing great suffering
Destruction and appropriation of property
Compelling service in hostile forces
Denying a fair trial
Unlawful deportation and transfer
Unlawful confinement
Taking hostages
Seven crimes constitute serious violations of article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and apply only to non-international armed conflicts:[108]
Murder
Mutilation
Cruel treatment
Torture
Outrages upon personal dignity
Taking hostages
Sentencing or execution without due process
Another 56 crimes defined by article 8: 35 apply to international armed conflicts and 21 to non-international armed conflicts.[108] Such crimes include attacking civilians or civilian objects, attacking peacekeepers, causing excessive incidental death or damage, transferring populations into occupied territories, treacherously killing or wounding, denying quarter, pillaging, employing poison, using expanding bullets, rape and other forms of sexual violence, and conscripting or using child soldiers.[74]:article 8
Crimes of aggression
Article 8 bis defines crimes of aggression. The Statute originally provided that the Court could not exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression until such time as the states parties agreed on a definition of the crime and set out the conditions under which it could be prosecuted.[11][74]:article 5 Such an amendment was adopted at the first review conference of the ICC in Kampala, Uganda, in June 2010. This amendment specified that the ICC would not be allowed to exercise jurisdiction of the crime of aggression until two further conditions had been satisfied: (1) the amendment has entered into force for 30 states parties and (2) on or after 1 January 2017, the Assembly of States Parties has voted in favor of allowing the Court to exercise jurisdiction. On 26 June 2016 the first condition was satisfied[110] and the state parties voted in favor of allowing the Court to exercise jurisdiction on 14 December 2017.[111] The Court's jurisdiction to prosecute crimes of aggression was accordingly activated on 17 July 2018.[111]
The Statute, as amended, defines the crime of aggression as "the planning, preparation, initiation or execution, by a person in a position effectively to exercise control over or to direct the political or military action of a State, of an act of aggression which, by its character, gravity and scale, constitutes a manifest violation of the Charter of the United Nations."[74]:article 8 bis(1) The Statute defines an "act of aggression" as "the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations."[74]:article 8 bis(2)[112] The article also contains a list of seven acts of aggression, which are identical to those in United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314 of 1974 and include the following acts when committed by one state against another state:[74]:articles 8 bis(2)(a)–8 bis(2)(g)
Invasion or attack by armed forces against territory
Attack on the land, sea, or air forces or marine and air fleets
The use of armed forces which are within the territory of another state by agreement, but in contravention of the conditions of the agreement
Allowing territory to be used by another state to perpetrate an act of aggression against a third state
Sending armed bands, groups, irregulars, or mercenaries to carry out acts of armed force
Offences against the administration of justice
Article 70 criminalizes certain intentional acts which interfere with investigations and proceedings before the Court, including giving false testimony, presenting false evidence, corruptly influencing a witness or official of the Court, retaliating against an official of the Court, and soliciting or accepting bribes as an official of the Court.[74]:article 70
Jurisdiction and admissibility
The Rome Statute requires that several criteria exist in a particular case before an individual can be prosecuted by the Court. The Statute contains three jurisdictional requirements and three admissibility requirements. All criteria must be met for a case to proceed. The three jurisdictional requirements are (1) subject-matter jurisdiction (what acts constitute crimes), (2) territorial or personal jurisdiction (where the crimes were committed or who committed them), and (3) temporal jurisdiction (when the crimes were committed).
For an individual to be prosecuted by the Court either territorial jurisdiction or personal jurisdiction must exist. Therefore, an individual can only be prosecuted if he or she has either (1) committed a crime within the territorial jurisdiction of the Court or (2) committed a crime while being a national of a state that is within the territorial jurisdiction of the Court.
Territorial jurisdiction
The territorial jurisdiction of the Court includes the territory, registered vessels, and registered aircraft of states which have either (1) become party to the Rome Statute or (2) accepted the Court's jurisdiction by filing a declaration with the Court.[74]:article 12
In situations that are referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council, the territorial jurisdiction is defined by the Security Council, which may be more expansive than the Court's normal territorial jurisdiction.[74]:article 13(b) For example, if the Security Council refers a situation that took place in the territory of a state that has both not become party to the Rome Statute and not lodged a declaration with the Court, the Court will still be able to prosecute crimes that occurred within that state.
Personal jurisdiction
The personal jurisdiction of the Court extends to all natural persons who commit crimes, regardless of where they are located or where the crimes were committed, as long as those individuals are nationals of either (1) states that are party to the Rome Statute or (2) states that have accepted the Court's jurisdiction by filing a declaration with the Court.[74]:article 12 As with territorial jurisdiction, the personal jurisdiction can be expanded by the Security Council if it refers a situation to the Court.[74]:article 13(b)
Temporal jurisdiction requirements
Temporal jurisdiction is the time period over which the Court can exercise its powers. No statute of limitations applies to any of the crimes defined in the Statute.[74]:article 29 This is not completely retroactive. Individuals can only be prosecuted for crimes that took place on or after 1 July 2002, which is the date that the Rome Statute entered into force.[74]:article 11(1) If a state became party to the Statute, and therefore a member of the Court, after 1 July 2002, then the Court cannot exercise jurisdiction prior to the membership date for certain cases.[74]:article 11(2) For example, if the Statute entered into force for a state on 1 January 2003, the Court could only exercise temporal jurisdiction over crimes that took place in that state or were committed by a national of that state on or after 1 January 2003.
Admissibility requirements
To initiate an investigation, the Prosecutor must (1) have a "reasonable basis to believe that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been or is being committed", (2) the investigation would be consistent with the principle of complementarity, and (3) the investigation serves the interests of justice.[74]:article 53(1)
Complementarity
The principle of complementarity means the Court will only prosecute an individual if states are unwilling or unable to prosecute.[113] Therefore, if legitimate national investigations or proceedings into crimes have taken place or are ongoing, the Court will not initiate proceedings. This principle applies regardless of the outcome of national proceedings.[74]:article 17(a)–17(c) Even if an investigation is closed without any criminal charges being filed or if an accused person is acquitted by a national court, the Court will not prosecute an individual for the crime in question so long as it is satisfied that the national proceedings were legitimate. The application of the complementarity principle has recently come under theoretical scrutiny.[114][74]:article 17(a)–17(c)
Gravity
The Court will only initiate proceedings if a crime is of "sufficient gravity to justify further action by the Court".[74]:article 17(d)
Interests of justice
The Prosecutor will initiate an investigation unless there are "substantial reasons to believe that an investigation would not serve the interests of justice" when "[t]aking into account the gravity of the crime and the interests of victims".[74]:article 53(1)(c) Furthermore, even if an investigation has been initiated and there are substantial facts to warrant a prosecution and no other admissibility issues, the Prosecutor must determine whether a prosecution would serve the interests of justice "taking into account all the circumstances, including the gravity of the crime, the interests of victims and the age or infirmity of the alleged perpetrator, and his or her role in the alleged crime".[74]:article 53(2)(c)
Individual criminal responsibility
The Court has jurisdiction over natural persons.[74]:article 25(1) A person who commits a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court is individually responsible and liable for punishment in accordance with the Rome Statute.[74]:article 25(2) In accordance with the Rome Statute, a person shall be criminally responsible and liable for punishment for a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court if that person: Commits such a crime, whether as an individual, jointly with another or through another person, regardless of whether that other person is criminally responsible;[74]:article 25(3)(a) Orders, solicits or induces the commission of such a crime which in fact occurs or is attempted;[74]:article 25(3)(b) For the purpose of facilitating the commission of such a crime, aids, abets or otherwise assists in its commission or its attempted commission, including providing the means for its commission;[74]:article 25(3)(c) In any other way contributes to the commission or attempted commission of such a crime by a group of persons acting with a common purpose.[74]:article 25(3)(d) In respect of the crime of genocide, directly and publicly incites others to commit genocide;[74]:article 25(3)(e) Attempts to commit such a crime by taking action that commences its execution by means of a substantial step, but the crime does not occur because of circumstances independent of the person's intentions[74]:article 25(3)(f)
Procedure
Trial
Trials are conducted under a hybrid common law and civil law judicial system, but it has been argued the procedural orientation and character of the court is still evolving.[115][116] A majority of the three judges present, as triers of fact in a bench trial, may reach a decision, which must include a full and reasoned statement.[117] Trials are supposed to be public, but proceedings are often closed, and such exceptions to a public trial have not been enumerated in detail.[118]In camera proceedings are allowed for protection of witnesses or defendants as well as for confidential or sensitive evidence.[119]Hearsay and other indirect evidence is not generally prohibited, but it has been argued the court is guided by hearsay exceptions which are prominent in common law systems.[120] There is no subpoena or other means to compel witnesses to come before the court, although the court has some power to compel testimony of those who chose to come before it, such as fines.[121]
Rights of the accused
The Rome Statute provides that all persons are presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt,[74]:article 66 and establishes certain rights of the accused and persons during investigations.[122][123] These include the right to be fully informed of the charges against them; the right to have a lawyer appointed, free of charge; the right to a speedy trial; and the right to examine the witnesses against them.
To ensure "equality of arms" between defence and prosecution teams, the ICC has established an independent Office of Public Counsel for the Defence (OPCD) to provide logistical support, advice and information to defendants and their counsel.[124][125] The OPCD also helps to safeguard the rights of the accused during the initial stages of an investigation.[126] Thomas Lubanga's defence team said they were given a smaller budget than the Prosecutor and that evidence and witness statements were slow to arrive.[127]
Victim participation
One of the great innovations of the Statute of the International Criminal Court and its Rules of Procedure and Evidence is the series of rights granted to victims.[128][129] For the first time in the history of international criminal justice, victims have the possibility under the Statute to present their views and observations before the Court.
Participation before the Court may occur at various stages of proceedings and may take different forms, although it will be up to the judges to give directions as to the timing and manner of participation.
Participation in the Court's proceedings will in most cases take place through a legal representative and will be conducted "in a manner which is not prejudicial or inconsistent with the rights of the accused and a fair and impartial trial".
The victim-based provisions within the Rome Statute provide victims with the opportunity to have their voices heard and to obtain, where appropriate, some form of reparation for their suffering. It is the aim of this attempted balance between retributive and restorative justice that, it is hoped, will enable the ICC to not only bring criminals to justice but also help the victims themselves obtain some form of justice. Justice for victims before the ICC comprises both procedural and substantive justice, by allowing them to participate and present their views and interests, so that they can help to shape truth, justice and reparations outcomes of the Court.[130]
Article 43(6) establishes a Victims and Witnesses Unit to provide "protective measures and security arrangements, counseling and other appropriate assistance for witnesses, victims who appear before the Court, and others who are at risk on account of testimony given by such witnesses."[74]:article 43(6) Article 68 sets out procedures for the "Protection of the victims and witnesses and their participation in the proceedings."[74]:article 68 The Court has also established an Office of Public Counsel for Victims, to provide support and assistance to victims and their legal representatives.[131]
Reparations
Victims before the International Criminal Court can also claim reparations under Article 75 of the Rome Statute. Reparations can only be claimed when a defendant is convicted and at the discretion of the Court's judges.[132] So far[when?] the Court has ordered reparations against Thomas Lubanga.[133] Reparations can include compensation, restitution and rehabilitation, but other forms of reparations may be appropriate for individual, collective or community victims. Article 79 of the Rome Statute establishes a Trust Fund to provide assistance before a reparation order to victims in a situation or to support reparations to victims and their families if the convicted person has no money.[134]
Cooperation by states not party to Rome Statute
One of the principles of international law is that a treaty does not create either obligations or rights for third states without their consent, and this is also enshrined in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.[135] The cooperation of the non-party states with the ICC is envisioned by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court to be of voluntary nature.[74]:article 87 (5)(a) States not acceded to the Rome Statute might still be subject to an obligation to cooperate with ICC in certain cases.[136] When a case is referred to the ICC by the UN Security Council all UN member states are obliged to cooperate, since its decisions are binding for all of them.[137] Also, there is an obligation to respect and ensure respect for international humanitarian law, which stems from the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I,[138] which reflects the absolute nature of international humanitarian law.[139]
In relation to cooperation in investigation and evidence gathering, it is implied from the Rome Statute[74]:article 99 that the consent of a non-party state is a prerequisite for ICC Prosecutor to conduct an investigation within its territory, and it seems that it is even more necessary for him to observe any reasonable conditions raised by that state, since such restrictions exist for states party to the Statute.[136] Taking into account the experience of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (which worked with the principle of the primacy, instead of complementarity) in relation to cooperation, some scholars have expressed their pessimism as to the possibility of ICC to obtain cooperation of non-party states.[136] As for the actions that ICC can take toward non-party states that do not cooperate, the Rome Statute stipulates that the Court may inform the Assembly of States Parties or Security Council, when the matter was referred by it, when non-party state refuses to cooperate after it has entered into an ad hoc arrangement or an agreement with the Court.[74]:article 87(5)
Amnesty and national reconciliation processes
It is unclear to what extent the ICC is compatible with reconciliation processes that grant amnesty to human rights abusers as part of agreements to end conflict.[140] Article 16 of the Rome Statute allows the Security Council to prevent the Court from investigating or prosecuting a case,[74]:article 16 and Article 53 allows the Prosecutor the discretion not to initiate an investigation if he or she believes that "an investigation would not serve the interests of justice".[74]:article 53 Former ICC president Philippe Kirsch has said that "some limited amnesties may be compatible" with a country's obligations genuinely to investigate or prosecute under the Statute.[140]
It is sometimes argued that amnesties are necessary to allow the peaceful transfer of power from abusive regimes. By denying states the right to offer amnesty to human rights abusers, the International Criminal Court may make it more difficult to negotiate an end to conflict and a transition to democracy. For example, the outstanding arrest warrants for four leaders of the Lord's Resistance Army are regarded by some as an obstacle to ending the insurgency in Uganda.[141][142] Czech politician Marek Benda argues that "the ICC as a deterrent will in our view only mean the worst dictators will try to retain power at all costs".[143] The United Nations[144] and the International Committee of the Red Cross[145] maintain that granting amnesty to those accused of war crimes and other serious crimes is a violation of international law.
Combination Visser & Smit Bouw and Boele & van Eesteren ('Courtys')
The official seat of the Court is in The Hague, Netherlands, but its proceedings may take place anywhere.[74]:article 3[146]
The Court moved into its first permanent premises in The Hague, located at Oude Waalsdorperweg 10, on 14 December 2015.[147] Part of The Hague's International Zone,[148] which also contains the Peace Palace, Europol, Eurojust, ICTY, OPCW and The Hague World Forum, the court facilities are situated on the site of the Alexanderkazerne, a former military barracks, adjacent to the dune landscape on the northern edge of the city. The ICC's detention centre is a short distance away.
Development
The land and financing for the new construction were provided by the Netherlands.[149] In addition, the host state organised and financed the architectural design competition which started at the end of 2008.
Three architects were chosen by an international jury from a total of 171 applicants to enter into further negotiations. The Danish firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen were ultimately selected to design the new premises since its design met all the ICC criteria, such as design quality, sustainability, functionality and costs.[150]
Demolition of the barracks started in November 2011 and was completed in August 2012.[151] In October 2012 the tendering procedure for the General Contractor was completed and the combination Visser & Smit Bouw and Boele & van Eesteren ("Courtys") was selected.[152]
Architecture
The building has a compact footprint and consists of six connected building volumes with a garden motif. The tallest volume with a green façade, placed in the middle of the design, is the Court Tower that accommodates three courtrooms. The rest of the building's volumes accommodate the offices of the different organs of the ICC.[153]
Exterior
Provisional headquarters, 2002–2015
The former (provisional) headquarters of the ICC in The Hague, in use until December 2015
Until late 2015, the ICC was housed in interim premises in The Hague provided by the Netherlands.[154] Formerly belonging to KPN, the provisional headquarters were located at Maanweg 174 in the east-central portion of the city.
The ICC's detention centre accommodates both those convicted by the court and serving sentences as well as those suspects detained pending the outcome of their trial. It comprises twelve cells on the premises of the Scheveningen branch of the Haaglanden Penal Institution, The Hague, close to the ICC's headquarters in the Alexanderkazerne.[155][156]
The ICC maintains a liaison office in New York[157] and field offices in places where it conducts its activities.[158] As of 18 October 2007, the Court had field offices in Kampala, Kinshasa, Bunia, Abéché and Bangui.[158]
The ICC is financed by contributions from the states parties. The amount payable by each state party is determined using the same method as the United Nations:[160] each state's contribution is based on the country's capacity to pay, which reflects factors such as a national income and population. The maximum amount a single country can pay in any year is limited to 22% of the Court's budget; Japan paid this amount in 2008.
The Court spent €80.5million in 2007.[161] The Assembly of States Parties approved a budget of €90.4million for 2008,[160] €101.2million for 2009,[162] and €141.6 million for 2017.[163]As of April2017[update], the ICC's staff consisted of 800 persons from approximately 100 states.[163]
Trial history
The ICC issued an arrest warrant for Omar al-Bashir of Sudan over alleged war crimes in Darfur.
To date, the Prosecutor has opened investigations in fourteen situations: Afghanistan; Burundi; two in the Central African Republic; Côte d'Ivoire; Darfur, Sudan; the Democratic Republic of the Congo; Georgia; Kenya; Libya; Mali; Uganda; Bangladesh/Myanmar, Palestine and Venezuela.[165][166] Additionally, the Office of the Prosecutor is conducting preliminary examinations in six situations: Colombia; Guinea; Nigeria; the Philippines; Ukraine and Bolivia.[167]
The Court's Pre-Trial Chambers have publicly indicted 64 people. Proceedings against 32 are ongoing: 27 are at large as fugitives, one is awaiting sentencing, and four are on trial. Proceedings against 32 have been completed: two are serving sentences, seven have finished sentences, four have been acquitted, seven have had the charges against them dismissed, four have had the charges against them withdrawn, and eight have died before the conclusion of the proceedings against them.
The judgment of Jean-Pierre Bemba was rendered in March 2016. Bemba was convicted on two counts of crimes against humanity and three counts of war crimes. This marked the first time the ICC convicted someone of sexual violence as they added rape to his conviction.[170][171] Bemba's convictions were overturned by the Court's Appeal Chamber in June 2018.[172] The Court refused to compensate Bemba for losses suffered by him during his 10 years of imprisonment. It has been argued that this decision raises important questions about the court's present powers.[173]
Ntaganda (DR Congo) was convicted to 30 years for crimes against humanity. The Bemba et al.OAJ case and the Laurent Gbagbo-Blé Goudé trial in the Côte d'Ivoire situation ended in acquittals. The Banda trial in the situation of Darfur, Sudan, was scheduled to begin in 2014 but the start date was vacated.
Charges against MalianAhmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi have been confirmed[174] and he was sentenced to nine years in prison. On 25 November 2021, his sentence was commuted to 7 years in prison, and he was released on 18 September 2022.[175]UgandanDominic Ongwen has been convicted to a prison sentence of 25 years.[176]
On 6 July 2020, two Uyghur activist groups filed a complaint with the ICC calling for it to investigate PRC officials for crimes against Uyghurs, including allegations of genocide.[177][178] In December 2020, ICC prosecutors rejected the complaint, stating that the ICC did not have jurisdictional basis to proceed.[179]
On 31 October 2023, the Israeli families of over 34 victims of the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, filed an Article 15 communication with the ICC prosecutor's office urging an investigation into the killings and abductions, and the ICC confirmed the receipt of the filing.[180]Reporters Without Borders also lodged a complaint regarding the deaths of eight Palestinian journalists in the Gaza Strip during Israel's bombardment, as well as an Israeli journalist killed during a surprise attack by Hamas in southern Israel.[181]
ICC investigations and examinations, as of March 2022 Green: Official investigations (Uganda, DR Congo, Central African Republic I + II, Darfur (Sudan), Kenya, Libya, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Georgia, Burundi, Afghanistan, Palestine, Venezuela I, Bangladesh/Myanmar, Philippines, Ukraine) Orange: Authorization to open investigation requested (none at present) Light red: Ongoing preliminary examinations (Nigeria, Guinea, Venezuela II) Dark red: Closed preliminary examinations that have not resulted in an investigation (Colombia, Iraq, Honduras, South Korea, Comoros (registered vessels), Gabon, Bolivia)
Currently, the Office of the Prosecutor has opened investigations in Afghanistan, the Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Darfur in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Libya, Uganda, Bangladesh/Myanmar, Palestine, the Philippines, and Venezuela.[182] Additionally, the Office of the Prosecutor conducted preliminary examinations in situations in Bolivia, Colombia, Guinea, Iraq/ the United Kingdom, Nigeria, Georgia, Honduras, South Korea, Ukraine and Venezuela.[183][184] Preliminary investigations were closed in Gabon; Honduras; registered vessels of Comoros, Greece, and Cambodia; South Korea; and Colombia on events since 1 July 2002.[183] Key: Investigation Investigation pending authorization Preliminary examination ongoing Preliminary examination closed
↑ The Office of the Prosecutor processes preliminary examinations through different phases. Every communication is first given an initial assessment to determine if it is sufficiently serious and if it falls within the Court's jurisdiction (phase 1). If it does, the Office begins a preliminary examination by first considering whether the alleged crimes fall within the subject-matter jurisdiction of the Court (phase 2). If the Office is satisfied that all the jurisdictional requirements are met, it then focuses on issues of admissibility by considering complementarity and the gravity of the alleged crimes (phase 3). If there are no admissibility concerns, the Office then considers the interests of justice and decides whether or not to begin a formal investigation (phase 4).[185] Once a formal investigation is opened, it is also processed through different phases. It is first processed through an "investigation phase" (phase 1), in which the Office determines the scope of its caseload, and then through a "prosecution phase" (phase 2), in which the Office completes the caseload.[186]
↑ The preliminary examination of the situation in Iraq/ the United Kingdom was initially closed on 9 February 2006, but was reopened on 13 May 2014.[202]
↑ A new preliminary investigation of the situation in Palestine was opened on 16 January 2015 and proceeded to a full investigation 3 March 2021.
↑ The preliminary examination relates to registered vessels of the Comoros, Greece and Cambodia.
↑ The Prosecutor previously closed the preliminary examination of the situation on registered vessels of the Comoros, Greece and Cambodia on 6 November 2014, but reconsidered her decision following a request by the Pre-Trial Chamber on 29 November 2017 and revised the final decision on 2 December 2019.[224][225][226]
↑ Albania, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, New Zealand, Norway, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom jointly referred the situation in Ukraine on 2 March 2022. Following the start of the investigation, Japan and North Macedonia also referred the situation.[228]
↑ Following the start of the investigation, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Comoros, Djibouti, and South Africa also referred the situation.[230]
1 2 Argentina, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, and Peru jointly referred the situation in Venezuela I on 27 September 2018. Venezuela referred the situation in Venezuela II on 13 February 2020. In a statement, the Prosecutor noted that the two referrals "appear to overlap geographically and temporally" but further noted that such a statement "should not prejudice a later determination on whether the referred scope of the two situations is sufficiently linked to constitute a single situation."[237]
Summary of investigations[note 1] and prosecutions by the International Criminal Court (not including reparations proceedings)
↑ Indicted but either charges not confirmed or withdrawn or proceedings terminated or acquitted. If charges were not confirmed or withdrawn or if proceedings were terminated, the Prosecutor may again prosecute with fresh evidence.
24 November 2009 – 23 May 2012 convicted 7 March 2014 sentenced 23 May 2014
Appeals by Prosecution and Defence discontinued
Convicted and sentenced to 12 years imprisonment; decision final; reparations regime established; ICC-related sentence served (after 8 years, 4 months); remained in custody of DRC authorities due to other charges
↑ A situation is listed here if the Prosecutor of the Court has opened an investigation.
↑ Obviously, only persons who are publicly indicted are listed. The Court can issue an indictment under seal.
↑ If not otherwise noted, the indicted is wanted by warrant of arrest.
↑ If there was a warrant of arrest, the dates of transfer to the International Criminal Court (in italics) and of the initial appearance are given. In case of a summons to appear, only the date of the initial appearance is given.
1 2 3 4 According to Article 61 (8) of the Rome Statute, "where the Pre-Trial Chamber declines to confirm a charge, the Prosecutor shall not be precluded from subsequently requesting its confirmation if the request is supported by additional evidence."
Unlike the International Court of Justice, the ICC is legally independent from the United Nations. The Rome Statute grants certain powers to the United Nations Security Council, which limit its functional independence. Article 13 allows the Security Council to refer to the Court situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court's jurisdiction (as it did in relation to the situations in Darfur and Libya, which the Court could not otherwise have prosecuted as neither Sudan nor Libya are state parties). Article 16 allows the Security Council to require the Court to defer from investigating a case for a period of twelve months.[74]:article 16 Such a deferral may be renewed indefinitely by the Security Council. This sort of an arrangement gives the ICC some of the advantages inhering in the organs of the United Nations such as using the enforcement powers of the Security Council, but it also creates a risk of being tainted with the political controversies of the Security Council.[300]
The Court cooperates with the UN in many different areas, including the exchange of information and logistical support.[301] The Court reports to the UN each year on its activities,[301][302] and some meetings of the Assembly of States Parties are held at UN facilities. The relationship between the Court and the UN is governed by a "Relationship Agreement between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations".[303][304]
Nongovernmental organizations
During the 1970s and 1980s, international human rights and humanitarian Nongovernmental Organizations (or NGOs) began to proliferate at exponential rates. Concurrently, the quest to find a way to punish international crimes shifted from being the exclusive responsibility of legal experts to being shared with international human rights activism.
NGOs helped birth the ICC through advocacy and championing for the prosecution of perpetrators of crimes against humanity. NGOs closely monitor the organization's declarations and actions, ensuring that the work that is being executed on behalf of the ICC is fulfilling its objectives and responsibilities to civil society.[305] According to Benjamin Schiff, "From the Statute Conference onward, the relationship between the ICC and the NGOs has probably been closer, more consistent, and more vital to the Court than have analogous relations between NGOs and any other international organization."
CICC members subscribe to three principles that permit them to work under the umbrella of the CICC, so long as their objectives match them:
Promoting worldwide ratification and implementation of the Rome Statute of the ICC
Maintaining the integrity of the Rome Statute of the ICC, and
Ensuring the ICC will be as fair, effective and independent as possible[306]
The NGOs that work under the CICC do not normally pursue agendas exclusive to the work of the Court, rather they may work for broader causes, such as general human rights issues, victims' rights, gender rights, rule of law, conflict mediation, and peace.[305][307] The CICC coordinates their efforts to improve the efficiency of NGOs' contributions to the Court and to pool their influence on major common issues. From the ICC side, it has been useful to have the CICC channel NGO contacts with the Court so that its officials do not have to interact individually with thousands of separate organizations.
NGOs have been crucial to the evolution of the ICC, as they assisted in the creation of the normative climate that urged states to seriously consider the Court's formation. Their legal experts helped shape the Statute, while their lobbying efforts built support for it. They advocate Statute ratification globally and work at expert and political levels within member states for passage of necessary domestic legislation. NGOs are greatly represented at meetings for the Assembly of States Parties, and they use the ASP meetings to press for decisions promoting their priorities.[305] Many of these NGOs have reasonable access to important officials at the ICC because of their involvement during the Statute process. They are engaged in monitoring, commenting upon, and assisting in the ICC's activities.
The ICC often depends on NGOs to interact with local populations. The Registry Public Information Office personnel and Victims Participation and Reparations Section officials hold seminars for local leaders, professionals and the media to spread the word about the Court.[305] These are the kinds of events that are often hosted or organized by local NGOs. Because there can be challenges with determining which of these NGOs are legitimate, CICC regional representatives often have the ability to help screen and identify trustworthy organizations.
NGOs are also "sources of criticism, exhortation and pressure upon" the ICC.[305] The ICC heavily depends on NGOs for its operations. Although NGOs and states cannot directly impact the judicial nucleus of the organization, they can impart information on crimes, can help locate victims and witnesses, and can promote and organize victim participation. NGOs outwardly comment on the Court's operations, "push for expansion of its activities especially in the new justice areas of outreach in conflict areas, in victims' participation and reparations, and in upholding due-process standards and defense 'equality of arms' and so implicitly set an agenda for the future evolution of the ICC."[305] The relatively uninterrupted progression of NGO involvement with the ICC may mean that NGOs have become repositories of more institutional historical knowledge about the ICC than its national representatives, and have greater expertise than some of the organization's employees themselves. While NGOs look to mold the ICC to satisfy the interests and priorities that they have worked for since the early 1990s, they unavoidably press against the limits imposed upon the ICC by the states that are members of the organization. NGOs can pursue their own mandates, irrespective of whether they are compatible with those of other NGOs, while the ICC must respond to the complexities of its own mandate as well as those of the states and NGOs.
Another issue has been that NGOs possess "exaggerated senses of their ownership over the organization and, having been vital to and successful in promoting the Court, were not managing to redefine their roles to permit the Court its necessary independence."[305] Additionally, because there does exist such a gap between the large human rights organizations and the smaller peace-oriented organizations, it is difficult for ICC officials to manage and gratify all of their NGOs. "ICC officials recognize that the NGOs pursue their own agendas, and that they will seek to pressure the ICC in the direction of their own priorities rather than necessarily understanding or being fully sympathetic to the myriad constraints and pressures under which the Court operates."[305] Both the ICC and the NGO community avoid criticizing each other publicly or vehemently, although NGOs have released advisory and cautionary messages regarding the ICC. They avoid taking stances that could potentially give the Court's adversaries, particularly the U.S., more motive to berate the organization.
Criticism and opposition
African states
In October 2016, after repeated claims that the court was biased against African states, Burundi, South Africa and the Gambia announced their withdrawals from the Rome Statute.[308] Following Gambia's presidential election later that year, which ended the long rule of Yahya Jammeh, Gambia rescinded its withdrawal notification.[309] A decision by the High Court of South Africa in early 2017 ruled that the attempted withdrawal was unconstitutional, as it had not been agreed by Parliament, prompting the South African government to inform the UN that it was revoking its decision to withdraw.[310][311]
The ICC has been accused of bias and as being a tool of Western imperialism, only punishing leaders from small, weak states while ignoring crimes committed by richer and more powerful states.[312][313][314][315] This sentiment has been expressed particularly by African leaders due to an alleged disproportionate focus of the Court on Africa, while it claims to have a global mandate. Until January 2016, all nine situations which the ICC had been investigating were in African countries.[316][317][318]
African critics have suggested the ICC is acting as a neo-colonial force seeking to further empower Western political and extractive interests in Africa.".[319] Scholar Awol Allo has described the court's underlying problem that has led to these challenges with Africa as not overt racism, but Eurocentrism.[5] Another analysis suggests that African states are motivated by concerns over Africa's place in world order: the problem is the sovereign inequality displayed by the ICC prosecutor's focus.[320]
The prosecution of Kenyan Deputy President William Ruto and President Uhuru Kenyatta (both charged before coming into office) led to the Kenyan parliament passing a motion calling for Kenya's withdrawal from the ICC, and the country called on the other 33 African states party to the ICC to withdraw their support, an issue which was discussed at a special African Union (AU) summit in October 2013.
Though the ICC has denied the charge of disproportionately targeting African leaders, and claims to stand up for victims wherever they may be, Kenya was not alone in criticising the ICC. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir visited Kenya, South Africa, China, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Ethiopia, Qatar and several other countries despite an outstanding ICC warrant for his arrest but was not arrested; he said that the charges against him are "exaggerated" and that the ICC was a part of a "Western plot" against him. Ivory Coast's government opted not to transfer former first lady Simone Gbagbo to the court but to instead try her at home. Rwanda's ambassador to the African Union, Joseph Nsengimana, argued that "It is not only the case of Kenya. We have seen international justice become more and more a political matter." Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni accused the ICC of "mishandling complex African issues". Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn, at the time AU chairman, told the UN General Assembly at the General debate of the sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly: "The manner in which the ICC has been operating has left a very bad impression in Africa. It is totally unacceptable."[321]
South African President Jacob Zuma said the perceptions of the ICC as "unreasonable" led to the calling of the special AU summit on 13 October 2015. Botswana is a notable supporter of the ICC in Africa.[322] At the summit, the AU did not endorse the proposal for a collective withdrawal from the ICC due to lack of support for the idea.[323] The summit concluded that serving heads of state should not be put on trial and that the Kenyan cases should be deferred. Ethiopian formerly Foreign Minister Tedros Adhanom said: "We have rejected the double standard that the ICC is applying in dispensing international justice."[324] Despite these calls, the ICC went ahead with requiring William Ruto to attend his trial.[325] The UNSC was then asked to consider deferring the trials of Kenyatta and Ruto for a year,[326] but this was rejected.[327] In November, the ICC's Assembly of State Parties responded to Kenya's calls for an exemption for sitting heads of state[328] by agreeing to consider amendments to the Rome Statute to address the concerns.[329]
On 7 October 2016, Burundi announced that it would leave the ICC, after the court began investigating political violence in that nation. In the two weeks that followed, South Africa and The Gambia also announced their intention to leave the court, with Kenya and Namibia reportedly also considering departure. All three nations cited the fact that all 39 people indicted by the court over its history by that date had been African and that the court has made no effort to investigate war crimes tied to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[330][331] Following The Gambia's presidential election later that year, which ended the long rule of Yahya Jammeh, the new government rescinded its withdrawal notification.[332] The High Court of South Africa ruled on 2 February 2017 that the South African government's notice to withdraw was unconstitutional and invalid.[333] On 7 March 2017 the South African government formally revoked its intention to withdraw.[334] The ruling ANC revealed on 5 July 2017 that its intention to withdraw stands.[335]
Israel
The Guardian reported in 2024 that Israel had conducted a nine year "war" against the ICC. During this time, Israeli intelligence agencies were used to "surveil, hack, pressure, smear and allegedly threaten senior ICC staff in an effort to derail the court’s inquiries". During her term as Prosecutor of the ICC, Fatou Bensouda and her family were allegedly threatened by the then Mossad director Yossi Cohen in an attempt to dissuade her from opening war crime inquiries against Israel.[336]
Philippines
Following the announcement that the ICC would open a preliminary investigation on the Philippines in connection to its escalating drug war, PresidentRodrigo Duterte announced on 14 March 2018 that the Philippines would start to submit plans to withdraw, completing the process on 17 March 2019. The ICC pointed out that it retained jurisdiction over the Philippines during the period when it was a state party to the Rome Statute, from November 2011 to March 2019.[337]
In March 2023, Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov announced that Russia did not recognize the Court's decision to issue an arrest warrant for President Vladimir Putin on account of war crimes in Ukraine and noted that Russia, like other countries which had not ratified the Rome Statute, did not recognise the jurisdiction of the ICC, saying "And accordingly, any decisions of this kind are null and void for the Russian Federation from the point of view of law."[338]
State Duma speaker Vyacheslav Volodin wrote on Telegram, "Yankees, hands off Putin!" calling the move evidence of Western "hysteria", and saying that "we regard any attacks on the President of the Russian Federation as aggression against our country".[338]
South African Foreign Minister Naledi Pandor criticized the ICC for not having what she called an "evenhanded approach" to all leaders responsible for violations of international law.[339] South Africa, which failed in its obligation to arrest visiting Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in June 2015, invited Vladimir Putin to the 15th BRICS Summit in Durban.[340] On 19 July 2023, South Africa announced that "by mutual agreement" Putin would not attend the summit. Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov attended in Putin's place.[341]
Putin with Mongolian President Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 3 September 2024
In the months following the arrest warrant for Putin being issued, Russia issued warrants for the arrest of multiple ICC officials, including the court's president Piotr Hofmański and its vice-president Luz del Carmen Ibáñez Carranza.[342]
Due to Mongolia being a signatory of the Rome Statute of the ICC, Putin could be placed under arrest by the Mongolian authorities if he sets foot on Mongolian territory. In advance of a visit by Putin to Mongolia on 3 September 2024, the ICC stated that Mongolia was obligated to place Putin under arrest.[343] After failure to make the arrest, Mongolia was described as complicit in Putin's war crimes.[344][345] Following the visit and the refusal to arrest Putin, the Mongolia government said that the issue of energy relations is critical to the country and that "Mongolia has always maintained a policy of neutrality in all its diplomatic relations, as demonstrated in our statements of record to date."[346]
PresidentGeorge W. Bush signed the American Service-Members' Protection Act, (informally referred to as The Hague Invasion Act), to signify the United States' opposition to any possible future jurisdiction of the court or its tribunals. The act gives the President the power to use "all means necessary and appropriate to bring about the release of any U.S. or allied personnel being detained or imprisoned by, on behalf of, or at the request of the International Criminal Court".[347][348][349] During the administration of Barack Obama, U.S. opposition to the ICC evolved to "positive engagement", although no effort was made to ratify the Rome Statute.[350][351]
The subsequent Donald Trump administration was considerably more hostile to the Court, similar to the Bush administration threatening prosecution and financial sanctions on ICC judges and staff in U.S. courts as well as imposing visa bans in response to any investigation against American nationals in connection to alleged crimes and atrocities perpetrated by the U.S. in Afghanistan. The threat included sanctions against any of over 120 countries which have ratified the Court for cooperating in the process.[352] In November 2017, Fatou Bensouda advised the court to consider seeking charges for human rights abuses committed during the War in Afghanistan such as alleged rapes and tortures by the U.S. Armed Forces and the Central Intelligence Agency, crime against humanity committed by the Taliban, and war crimes committed by the Afghan National Security Forces.[353]John Bolton, National Security Advisor of the United States, stated that ICC Court had no jurisdiction over the U.S., which did not ratify the Rome Statute.[354] In 2020, overturning the previous decision not to proceed, senior judges at the ICC authorized an investigation into the alleged war crimes in Afghanistan.[355]
On 11 June 2020, the United States announced sanctions on officials and employees, as well as their families, involved in investigating alleged crimes against humanity committed by U.S. armed forces in Afghanistan.[356] This move was widely criticized by human rights groups.[357] The U.S. ordered sanctions against the ICC prosecutor Fatou Bensouda, and the ICC's head of Jurisdiction, Complementary, and Cooperation Division, Phakiso Mochochok, for an investigation into alleged war crimes by U.S. forces and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Afghanistan since 2003.[358] "The US government has reason to doubt the honesty of the ICC. The Department of Justice has received substantial credible information that raises serious concerns about a long history of financial corruption and malfeasance at the highest levels of the office of the prosecutor", Attorney General William Barr stated. The ICC responded with a statement expressing "profound regret at the announcement of further threats and coercive actions." "These attacks constitute an escalation and an unacceptable attempt to interfere with the rule of law and the Court's judicial proceedings", the statement said. "They are announced with the declared aim of influencing the actions of ICC officials in the context of the court's independent and objective investigations and impartial judicial proceedings."[359]
On 30 September 2020, prominent United States human rights lawyers announced that they would sue Trump and his Administration—including Secretary of StateMike Pompeo, Treasury secretary Steven Mnuchin, attorney general William Barr, and OFAC director Andrea Gacki, and the departments they head—on the grounds that Trump's Executive Order 13928 order had gagged them, violating their right to free speech and impeding their work in trying to obtain justice on behalf of victims of war crimes. One of the plaintiffs, Diane Marie Amann, stated that, as a result of sanctions against the chief prosecutor at the ICC, she herself risked having her family assets seized if she continued to work for children who are bought and sold by traffickers, killed, tortured, sexually abused and forced to become child soldiers.[360]
On 4 January 2021, U.S. District Judge Katherine Polk Failla in New York City issued a preliminary injunction against the Trump administration from imposing criminal or civil penalties against ICC personnel and those who support the court's work, including the plaintiffs.[361] The sanctions were subsequently lifted by the Biden administration Secretary of State Antony Blinken in April 2021.[362]
In 2023, the Biden administration welcomed the issuing of an ICC arrest warrant for Russian President Vladimir Putin. President Joe Biden said that the issuing of the warrant "makes a very strong point".[48]
In 2024, the Biden administration opposed an arrest warrant for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu over alleged Israeli war crimes committed during the Israel–Hamas war in the Gaza Strip.[363][364] President Biden denounced Netanyahu's arrest warrant as "outrageous."[365] Secretary of State Antony Blinken said the Biden administration would work with the US Congress on potential sanctions against the ICC.[366] Prior to the issuing of the ICC's arrest warrant for Netanyahu, a group of US Republican senators sent a letter to ICC prosecutor Karim Ahmad Khan that contained the warning "Target Israel and we will target you. If you move forward … we will move to end all American support for the ICC, sanction your employees and associates, and bar you and your families from the United States. You have been warned."[367]The House passed a bill to sanction ICC officials on June 4, 2024.[368]
U.S. criticisms
The United States Department of State argues that there are "insufficient checks and balances on the authority of the ICC prosecutor and judges" and "insufficient protection against politicized prosecutions or other abuses".[82] The current law in the United States on the ICC is the American Service-Members' Protection Act (ASPA), 116 Stat. 820. The ASPA authorizes the President of the United States to use "all means necessary and appropriate to bring about the release of any U.S. or allied personnel being detained or imprisoned by, on behalf of, or at the request of the International Criminal Court". This authorization has led the act to be nicknamed the "Hague Invasion Act",[369][370] because the freeing of U.S. citizens by force might be possible only through military action.
On 10 September 2018, John R. Bolton, in his first major address as U.S. National Security Advisor, reiterated that the ICC lacks checks and balances, exercises "jurisdiction over crimes that have disputed and ambiguous definitions", and has failed to "deter and punish atrocity crimes". The ICC, Bolton said, was "superfluous", given that "domestic judicial systems already hold American citizens to the highest legal and ethical standards". He added that the U.S. would do everything "to protect our citizens" should the ICC attempt to prosecute U.S. servicemen over alleged detainee abuse in Afghanistan. In that event, ICC judges and prosecutors would be barred from entering the U.S., their funds in the U.S. would be sanctioned and the U.S. "will prosecute them in the U.S. criminal system. We will do the same for any company or state that assists an ICC investigation of Americans", Bolton said. He also criticized Palestinian efforts to bring Israel before the ICC over allegations of human rights abuses in the West Bank and Gaza.[371]
OPCD
Concerning the independent Office of Public Counsel for the Defence (OPCD), Thomas Lubanga's defence team say they were given a smaller budget than the Prosecutor and that evidence and witness statements were slow to arrive.[127]
Impartiality
The International Criminal Court is often "critiqued for being selective, or imperialistic, or reflecting the geopolitical interests of powerful states," says Sarah Knuckey, a Columbia law professor. While many Western countries supported the arrest warrant for Russian President Putin, how they respond to the warrant against Israel's Netanyahu will be "a test of the genuineness of their commitment to international justice for all", she continued.[372]
Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported that the ICC's prosecutor team takes no account of the roles played by the government in the conflict of Uganda, Rwanda or Congo. This led to a flawed investigation, because the ICC did not reach the conclusion of its verdict after considering the governments' position and actions in the conflict.[373]
Unintentional consequences
Research indicates that prosecutions of leaders who are culpable of international crimes in the ICC makes them less likely to peacefully step down, which can prolong conflicts and incentivize them to make continued use of mass violence.[374][375] It is also argued that justice is a means to peace: "As a result, the ICC has been used as a means of intervention in ongoing conflicts with the expectation that the indictments, arrests, and trials of elite perpetrators have deterrence and preventive effects for atrocity crimes. Despite these legitimate intentions and great expectations, there is little evidence of the efficacy of justice as a means to peace".[376]
State cooperation
That the ICC cannot mount successful cases without state cooperation is problematic for several reasons. It means that the ICC acts inconsistently in its selection of cases, is prevented from taking on hard cases and loses legitimacy.[377] It also gives the ICC less deterrent value, as potential perpetrators of war crimes know that they can avoid ICC judgment by taking over government and refusing to cooperate.[377]
Principle of complementarity
The fundamental principle of complementarity of the ICC Rome Statute is often taken for granted in the legal analysis of international criminal law and its jurisprudence. Initially the thorny issue of the actual application of the complementarity principle arose in 2008, when William Schabas published his influential paper.[378] No substantive research was made by other scholars on this issue for quite some time. In June 2017, Victor Tsilonis advanced the same criticism which is reinforced by events, practices of the Office of the Prosecutor and ICC cases in the Essays in Honour of Nestor Courakis. His paper essentially argues that the Αl‐Senussi case arguably is the first instance of the complementarity principle's actual implementation eleven whole years after the ratification of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[379]
On the other hand, in 2017, Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda invoked the principle of complementarity in the situation between Russia and Georgia in the Ossetia region.[380] Moreover, following the threats of certain African states (initially Burundi, Gambia and South Africa) to withdraw their ratifications, Bensouda again referred to the principle of complementarity as a core principle of ICC's jurisdiction and has more extensively focused on the principle's application on the latest Office of The Prosecutor's Report on Preliminary Examination Activities 2016.[381]
Some advocates have suggested that the ICC go "beyond complementarity" and systematically support national capacity for prosecutions.[382] They argue that national prosecutions, where possible, are more cost-effective, preferable to victims and more sustainable.
Jurisdiction over corporations
There is a debate on whether the ICC should have jurisdiction over corporations that violate international law.[383] Supporters argue that corporations can and do commit human rights violations,[384] such as war crimes linked to raw materials in conflict zones.[385] Critics argue that prosecuting corporations would compromise the principle of complementarity,[386] that it would give corporations excessive power under international law, or that it would compromise voluntary initiatives by companies.[384]John Ruggie has argued that jurisdiction of corporations under international law should be limited to international crimes, while Nicolás Carrillo-Santarelli of La Sabana University argues that it should cover all human rights violations.[387]
Despite its lack of jurisdiction, the ICC announced in 2016 that it would prioritize criminal cases linked to land grabbing, illegal resource extraction, or environmental degradation caused by corporate activity.[388] The proposed crime of ecocide would have jurisdiction over corporations as well as governments.[389] Supporters of criminalizing ecocide argue that it would shift the ICC's priorities away from Africa, since most environmental degradation is caused by states and corporations in the Global North.[389]
Universal jurisdiction is a legal principle that allows states or international organizations to prosecute individuals for serious crimes, such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, regardless of where the crime was committed and irrespective of the accused's nationality or residence. Rooted in the belief that certain offenses are so heinous that they threaten the international community as a whole, universal jurisdiction holds that such acts are beyond the scope of any single nation's laws. Instead, these crimes are considered to violate norms owed to the global community and fundamental principles of international law, making them prosecutable in any court that invokes this principle.
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC). It was adopted at a diplomatic conference in Rome, Italy on 17 July 1998 and it entered into force on 1 July 2002. As of October 2024, 125 states are party to the statute. Among other things, it establishes court function, jurisdiction and structure.
International criminal law (ICL) is a body of public international law designed to prohibit certain categories of conduct commonly viewed as serious atrocities and to make perpetrators of such conduct criminally accountable for their perpetration. The core crimes under international law are genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression.
A preliminary examination of possible war crimes committed by United Kingdom (UK) military forces during the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 was started by the ICC in 2005 and closed in 2006. The preliminary examination was reopened in 2014 in the light of new evidence.
The International Criminal Court has opened investigations in Afghanistan, the Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Darfur in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Libya, Uganda, Bangladesh/Myanmar, Palestine, the Philippines, and Venezuela. Additionally, the Office of the Prosecutor conducted preliminary examinations in situations in Bolivia, Colombia, Guinea, Iraq / the United Kingdom, Nigeria, Georgia, Honduras, South Korea, Ukraine and Venezuela. Preliminary investigations were closed in Gabon; Honduras; registered vessels of Comoros, Greece, and Cambodia; South Korea; and Colombia on events since 1 July 2002.
The United States is not a state party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which founded the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2002.
The states parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court are those sovereign states that have ratified, or have otherwise become party to, the Rome Statute. The Rome Statute is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court, an international court that has jurisdiction over certain international crimes, including genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes that are committed by nationals of states parties or within the territory of states parties. States parties are legally obligated to co-operate with the Court when it requires, such as in arresting and transferring indicted persons or providing access to evidence and witnesses. States parties are entitled to participate and vote in proceedings of the Assembly of States Parties, which is the Court's governing body. Such proceedings include the election of such officials as judges and the Prosecutor, the approval of the Court's budget, and the adoption of amendments to the Rome Statute.
Karim Asad Ahmad Khan is a British lawyer specialising in international criminal law and international human rights law, who has served as Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court since 2021.
The International Criminal Court's founding treaty, the Rome Statute, provides that individuals or organizations may submit information on crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court. These submissions are referred to as "communications to the International Criminal Court".
The International Criminal Court investigation in Kenya or the situation in the Republic of Kenya was an investigation by the International Criminal Court (ICC) into the responsibility for the 2007–2008 post-election violence in Kenya. The 2007–2008 crisis followed the presidential election that was held on 27 December 2007. The Electoral Commission of Kenya officially declared that the incumbent President Mwai Kibaki was re-elected however supporters of the opposition candidate Raila Odinga accused the government of electoral fraud and rejected the results. A series of protests and demonstrations followed, and fighting—mainly along tribal lines—led to an estimated 1,200 deaths and more than 500,000 people becoming internally displaced.
The International Criminal Court investigation in Uganda or the situation in Uganda is an ongoing investigation by the International Criminal Court (ICC) into the Lord's Resistance Army insurgency which has been taking place in northern Uganda and neighbouring regions since 1987. The Lord's Resistance Army is a Christian-based group led by Joseph Kony that is accused of numerous human rights violations and war crimes including massacres, the abduction of civilians, the use of child soldiers, sexual enslavement, torture, and pillaging. After the government of Uganda referred the matter to the ICC in December 2003, warrants of arrest were issued in 2005 for Joseph Kony, Raska Lukwiya, Okot Odhiambo, Dominic Ongwen, and Vincent Otti, who became the first people to be indicted by the Court.
The International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo or the situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is an ongoing investigation by the International Criminal Court (ICC) into crimes committed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during the Second Congo War and its aftermath, including the Ituri and Kivu conflicts. The war started in 1998 and despite a peace agreement between combatants in 2003, conflict continued in the eastern parts of the country for several years. In April 2004 the government of the DRC formally referred the situation in the Congo to the International Criminal Court, and in June 2004, prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo, formally opened an investigation. To date, arrest warrants have been issued for:
The International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur or the situation in Darfur is an ongoing investigation by the International Criminal Court (ICC) into criminal acts committed during the War in Darfur. Although Sudan is not a state party to the Rome Statute, the treaty which created the ICC, the situation in Darfur was referred to the ICC's Prosecutor by the United Nations Security Council in 2005. As of June 2019, five suspects remained under indictment by the court: Ahmed Haroun, Ali Kushayb, Omar al-Bashir, Abdallah Banda and Abdel Rahim Mohammed Hussein. Charges against Bahar Abu Garda were dropped on the basis of insufficient evidence in 2010 and those against Saleh Jerbo were dropped following his death in 2013. In mid-April 2019, Haroun, al-Bashir and Hussein were imprisoned in Sudan as a result of the 2019 Sudanese coup d'état. In early November 2019, the Forces of Freedom and Change (FFC) and Sudanese Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok stated that al-Bashir would be transferred to the ICC. One of the demands of the displaced people of Darfur visited by Hamdok prior to Hamdok's statement was that "Omar Al Bashir and the other wanted persons" had to be surrendered to the ICC.
The International Criminal Court investigation in Libya or the Situation in Libya is an investigation started in March 2011 by the International Criminal Court (ICC) into war crimes and crimes against humanity claimed to have occurred in Libya since 15 February 2011. The initial context of the investigation was the 2011 Libyan Civil War and the time frame of the investigation continued to include the 2019 Western Libya offensive.
The Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC), Fatou Bensouda, on 20 December 2019 announced an investigation into war crimes allegedly committed in Palestine by members of the Israeli military or Hamas and other Palestinian armed groups since 13 June 2014.
The International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine or the Situation in Ukraine is an ongoing investigation by the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) into "any past and present allegations of war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide committed on any part of the territory of Ukraine by any person" during the period starting "from 21 November 2013 onwards", on an "open-ended basis", covering the Revolution of Dignity, the Russo-Ukrainian War including the 2014 annexation of Crimea by Russia, the war in Donbas and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The ICC prosecutor commenced these investigations on 2 March 2022, after receiving referrals for the situation in Ukraine from 39 ICC State Parties.
The Russian invasion of Ukraine violated international law. The invasion has also been called a crime of aggression under international criminal law, and under some countries' domestic criminal codes – including those of Ukraine and Russia – although procedural obstacles exist to prosecutions under these laws.
On 17 March 2023, following an investigation of war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Vladimir Putin, the president of Russia, and Maria Lvova-Belova, Russian commissioner for children's rights, alleging responsibility for the war crime of unlawful deportation and transfer of children during the Russo-Ukrainian War. The warrant against Putin is the first against the leader of a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.
Rosario Salvatore Aitala is an Italian jurist specialising in criminal law. Aitala was elected as a judge of the International Criminal Court in 2017, for a mandate from 11 March 2018 to 10 March 2027.
References
↑ "The International Criminal Court: An Introduction". Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2012. The official languages of the ICC are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish and the working languages are currently English and French.
↑ The International Criminal Court is sometimes abbreviated as ICCt to distinguish it from several other organisations abbreviated as ICC.[citation needed] The more common abbreviation ICC is used here.
↑ Archibugi, Daniele; Pease, Alice (2018). Crime and global justice: the dynamics of international punishment. Cambridge Medford (Mass.): Polity press. ISBN978-1-5095-1261-4.
↑ "UN DIPLOMATIC CONFERENCE CONCLUDES IN ROME WITH DECISION TO ESTABLISH PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT" (Press release). United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 20 July 1998. Archived from the original on 30 June 2018. Israel has reluctantly cast a negative vote. It fails to comprehend why it has been considered necessary to insert into the list of the most heinous and grievous war crimes the action of transferring population into occupied territory. The exigencies of lack of time and intense political and public pressure have obliged the Conference to by-pass very basic sovereign prerogatives to which we are entitled in drafting international conventions, in favour of finishing the work and achieving a Statute on a come-what-may basis. We continue to hope that the Court will indeed serve the lofty objectives for the attainment of which it is being established.
↑ "A/RES/54/105"(PDF). UN General Assembly. 25 January 2000. Archived from the original(PDF) on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
↑ "A/RES/55/155"(PDF). UN General Assembly. 19 January 2001. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
↑ "Kampala Amendments". Parliamentarians for Global Action – Mobilizing Legislators as Champions for Human Rights, Democracy and Peace. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
↑ Roach, Steven C. (2009). Governance, order, and the International Criminal Court: between realpolitik and a cosmopolitan court. Oxford: Oxford university press. ISBN978-0-19-954673-2.
↑ Schabas, William (2003). An introduction to the International Criminal Court (Repred.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN978-0-521-01149-5.
↑ Moffett, Luke (2016). Justice for victims before the International Criminal Court. Routledge research in international law. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN978-0-415-72239-1.
1 2 3 The sum of (a) states parties, (b) signatories and (c) non-signatory United Nations member states is 195. This number is two more than the number of United Nations member states (193) due to the State of Palestine and Cook Islands being states parties but not United Nations member states.
↑ LeBor, Adam (September 2011). Brûlé, Tyler (ed.). "Don't Judge". Monocle. 05 (46). Midori House, London: Winkontent Ltd.: 48–49. ISSN1753-2434. cases are not the same, says Moreno-Ocampo. Arresting a head of state is more than a police matter. "You cannot say al-Bashir is in London, arrest him. You need a political agreement and a broad set of actors."
↑ Lee, Roy S.; Lee, Roy Stuart, eds. (2001). The International Criminal Court: elements of crimes and rules of procedure and evidence. Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers. ISBN978-1-57105-209-4.
↑ Broomhall, Bruce (2004). International justice and the International Criminal Court: between sovereignty and the rule of law. Oxford monographs in international law (Publ. new in paperbacked.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN978-0-19-927424-6.
↑ Köchler, Hans (2003). Global justice or global revenge? international criminal justice at the crossroads; philosophical reflections on the principles of the international legal order published on the occasion of the thirtieth anniversary of the foundation of the International Progress Organization. Springer Science. International Progress Organization. Wien: Springer. ISBN978-3-211-00795-2.
↑ Calvo-Goller, Notburga K.; Calvo-Goller, Karin N. (2006). The trial proceedings of the international criminal court: ICTY and ICTR precedents. Leiden: Nijhoff. ISBN978-90-04-14931-1.
↑ International Criminal Court. "Victims and witnesses". Archived from the original on 2 July 2007. Retrieved 22 June 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
↑ International Criminal Court. "Trust Fund for Victims". Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
↑ Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. the United States of America), Merits, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1986, p. 114, para. 220.
1 2 Anthony Dworkin (December 2003). "Introduction"Archived 16 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine in The International Criminal Court: An End to Impunity? Crimes of War Project. Retrieved 18 September 2007.
1 2 "Resolution ICC-ASP/6/Res.4"(PDF). Part III – Resolutions and recommendations adopted by the Assembly of States Parties. International Criminal Court. 14 December 2007. Archived from the original(PDF, 323KB) on 9 April 2008. Retrieved 30 October 2011. Programme budget for 2008, the Working Capital Fund for 2008, scale of assessments for the apportionment of expenses of the International Criminal Court and financing appropriations for the year 2008
↑ Programme budget for 2009, the Contingency Fund, the Working Capital Fund for 2009, scale of assessments for the apportionment of expenses of the International Criminal Court and financing appropriations for the year 2009: Assembly of States Parties (21 November 2008). "Resolution ICC-ASP/7/Res.1"(PDF). Part III – Resolutions adopted by the Assembly of States Parties. International Criminal Court. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 October 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
1 2 "The Court Today"(PDF). International Criminal Court. 25 April 2017. Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
↑ Brouwer, Anne-Marie de (2005). Supranational criminal prosecution of sexual violence: the ICC and the practice of the ICTY and the ICTR. School of Human Rights Research series. Antwerpen: Intersentia. ISBN978-90-5095-533-1.
↑ Hussein Adem, Seada (2019). Palestine and the International Criminal Court. International criminal justice series. The Hague: Asser Press. ISBN978-94-6265-290-3.
↑ Article 110 (3) of the Rome Statute of the International Court states that "[w]hen the person has served two thirds of the sentence, or 25 years in the case of life imprisonment, the Court shall review the sentence to determine whether it should be reduced. Such a review shall not be conducted before that time." Article 78 (3) of the Rome Statute specifies that "[i]n imposing a sentence of imprisonment, the Court shall deduct the time, if any, previously spent in detention in accordance with an order of the Court. The Court may deduct any time otherwise spent in detention in connection with conduct underlying the crime." The Court's Trial Chamber VI determined in its sentencing decision that the time since 22 March 2013 is to be deducted from the sentence. Thus, Bosco Ntaganda is to be released on or before 22 March 2043. Starting from 22 March 2013, two-thirds of thirty years (twenty years) will elapse on 22 March 2033.
↑ Article 110 (3) of the Rome Statute of the International Court states that "[w]hen the person has served two thirds of the sentence, or 25 years in the case of life imprisonment, the Court shall review the sentence to determine whether it should be reduced. Such a review shall not be conducted before that time." Article 78 (3) of the Rome Statute specifies that "[i]n imposing a sentence of imprisonment, the Court shall deduct the time, if any, previously spent in detention in accordance with an order of the Court. The Court may deduct any time otherwise spent in detention in connection with conduct underlying the crime." The Court's Trial Chamber IX determined in its sentencing decision that the time since 4 January 2015 is to be deducted from the sentence. Thus, Dominic Ongwen is to be released on or before 4 January 2040. Starting from 4 January 2015, two-thirds of twenty-five years (sixteen years, eight months) will elapse on 4 September 2031.
1 2 International Criminal Court, 1 February 2007. "UN Secretary-General visits ICC". Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 10 February 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). Retrieved 1 February 2007.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Schiff, Benjamin (2008). Building the International Criminal Court. Cambridge University Press.
1 2 "About the Coalition". Coalition for the International Criminal Court. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
↑ Gissel, Line Engbo (2020). The International Criminal Court and peace processes in Africa: judicialising peace. Routledge studies in peace, conflict and security in Africa (First issued in paperbacked.). London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN978-0-367-59335-3.
↑ Seda, Darleen (19 November 2016). "Dissatisfaction with the court". D+C, Development and Cooperation. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
↑ Brett, Peter; Gissel, Line Engbo (2020). Africa and the Backlash Against International Courts. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp.34–55. ISBN9781786992970.
↑ "Putin Evades Arrest in Mongolia". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 4 September 2024. Retrieved 4 September 2024. this makes Mongolia complicit in Putin's war crimes
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
