Looting

Last updated
The plundering of the Frankfurter Judengasse, 22 August 1614 Pluenderung der Judengasse 1614.png
The plundering of the Frankfurter Judengasse, 22 August 1614

Looting is the act of stealing, or the taking of goods by force, typically in the midst of a military, political, or other social crisis, such as war, [1] natural disasters (where law and civil enforcement are temporarily ineffective), [2] or rioting. [3] The proceeds of all these activities can be described as booty, loot, plunder, spoils, or pillage. [4] [5]

Contents

During modern-day armed conflicts, looting is prohibited by international law, and constitutes a war crime. [6] [7]

After disasters

During a disaster, police and military forces are sometimes unable to prevent looting when they are overwhelmed by humanitarian or combat concerns, or they cannot be summoned because of damaged communications infrastructure. Especially during natural disasters, many civilians may find themselves forced to take what does not belong to them in order to survive. [8] How to respond to that and where the line between unnecessary "looting" and necessary "scavenging" lies are often dilemmas for governments. [9] [10] In other cases, looting may be tolerated or even encouraged by governments for political or other reasons, including religious, social or economic ones.

History

In armed conflict

The sacking and looting of Mechelen by Spanish troops led by the Duke of Alba, 2 October 1572 Plundering van Mechelen door Spaanse Troepen 1572 Frans Hogenberg.jpg
The sacking and looting of Mechelen by Spanish troops led by the Duke of Alba, 2 October 1572

Looting by a victorious army during war has been a common practice throughout recorded history. [11] Foot soldiers viewed plunder as a way to supplement an often-meagre income [12] and transferred wealth became part of the celebration of victory. In the wake of the Napoleonic Wars and particularly after World War II, norms against wartime plunder became widely accepted. [11]

In the upper ranks, the proud exhibition of the loot plundered formed an integral part of the typical Roman triumph, and Genghis Khan was not unusual in proclaiming that the greatest happiness was "to vanquish your enemies... to rob them of their wealth". [13]

In ancient times, looting was sometimes prohibited due to religious concerns. For example, King Clovis I of the Franks, forbade his soldiers to loot when they campaigned near St Martin's shrine in Tours, for fear of offending the saint. [14] Moses, Joshua and Samuel at various points ordered the Israelites not to take loot from their enemies due to God's commandment.

In warfare in ancient times, the spoils of war included the defeated populations, which were often enslaved. Women and children might become absorbed into the victorious country's population, as concubines, eunuchs and slaves. [15] [16] In other pre-modern societies, objects made of precious metals were the preferred target of war looting, largely because of their ease of portability. In many cases, looting offered an opportunity to obtain treasures and works of art that otherwise would not have been obtainable. Beginning in the early modern period and reaching its peak in the New Imperialism era, European colonial powers frequently looted areas they captured during military campaigns against non-European states. [17] In the 1930s, and even more so during the Second World War, Nazi Germany engaged in large-scale and organized looting of art and property, particularly in Nazi-occupied Poland. [18] [19]

Looting, combined with poor military discipline, has occasionally been an army's downfall[ citation needed ] since troops who have dispersed to ransack an area may become vulnerable to counter-attack, a good example being during the 1967 First Invasion of Onitsha, where the victorious Nigerian troops were encircled and annihilated while looting. In other cases, for example, the Wahhabi sack of Karbala in 1801 or 1802, loot has contributed to further victories for an army. [20] Not all looters in wartime are conquerors; the looting of Vistula Land by the retreating Imperial Russian Army in 1915 [21] was among the factors sapping the loyalty of Poles to Russia. Local civilians can also take advantage of a breakdown of order to loot public and private property, as took place at the Iraq Museum in the course of the Iraq War in 2003. [22] Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy's novel War and Peace describes widespread looting by Moscow's citizens before Napoleon's troops entered the city in 1812, along with looting by French troops elsewhere.

In 1990 and 1991, during the Gulf War, Saddam Hussein's soldiers caused significant damage to both Kuwaiti and Saudi infrastructure. They also stole from private companies and homes. [23] [24] In April 2003, looters broke into the National Museum of Iraq, and thousands of artefacts remain missing. [25] [26]

Syrian conservation sites and museums were looted during the Syrian Civil War, with items being sold on the international black market. [27] [28] Reports from 2012 suggested that the antiquities were being traded for weapons by the various combatants. [29] [30]

Prohibited under international law

Both customary international law and international treaties prohibit pillage in armed conflict. [6] The Lieber Code, the Brussels Declaration (1874), and the Oxford Manual have recognized the prohibition against pillage. [6] The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 (modified in 1954) obliges military forces not only to avoid the destruction of enemy property but also to provide for its protection. [31] Article 8 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court provides that in international warfare, "pillaging a town or place, even when taken by assault", is a war crime. [6] In the aftermath of World War II, a number of war criminals were prosecuted for pillage. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) brought several prosecutions for pillage. [6]

The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 explicitly prohibits the looting of civilian property during wartime. [6] [32]

Theoretically, to prevent such looting, unclaimed property is moved to the custody of the Custodian of Enemy Property, to be handled until returned to its owners.

Modern conflicts

Vandalized and looted Aldi Store during the George Floyd protests in Minneapolis , May 28 2020 . Graffiti outside looted Aldi store on May 28, 2020 in Minneapolis (51237052782).jpg
Vandalized and looted Aldi Store during the George Floyd protests in Minneapolis , May 28 2020 .

Despite international prohibitions against the practice of looting, the ease with which it can be done means that it remains relatively common, particularly during outbreaks of civil unrest during which rules of war may not yet apply. The 2011 Egyptian Revolution, for example, caused a significant increase in the looting of antiquities from archaeological sites in Egypt, as the government lost the ability to protect the sites. [33] Other acts of modern looting, such as the looting and destruction of artifacts from the National Museum of Iraq by Islamic State militants, can be used as an easy way to express contempt for the concept of rules of war altogether. [34]

In the case of a sudden change in a country or region's government, it can be difficult to determine what constitutes looting as opposed to a new government taking custody of the property in question. This can be especially difficult if the new government is only partially recognized at the time the property is moved, as was the case during the 2021 Taliban offensive, during which a number of artifacts and a large amount of property of former government officials who had fled the country fell into the hands of the Taliban before they were recognized as the legitimate government of Afghanistan by other countries. Further looting and burning of civilian homes and villages has been defended by the Taliban as within their right as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. [35]

Looting can also be common in cases where civil unrest is contained largely within the borders of a country or during peacetime. Riots in the wake of the 2020 George Floyd protests in numerous American cities led to increased amounts of looting, as looters took advantage of the delicate political situation and civil unrest surrounding the riots themselves. [36] [37] [38] Up to 175 Target stores closed Nationwide during the disturbances. [39] [40]

During the ongoing Kashmir conflict, looting of Kashmiris trapped between the Indian and Pakistani militarized zones is common and widespread. [41]

In 2022, international observers accused Russia of engaging in large scale looting during the Russo-Ukrainian War, reporting the widespread looting of everything from food to industrial equipment. [42] Despite the publication of numerous photos and videos by Ukrainian journalists and civilians, numerous Russian commanders have denied these claims. International observers have theorized that this looting is either the result of direct orders, despite to Russia's claims to the contrary, or due to Russian soldiers not being issued with adequate food and other resources by their commanders. [43]

Archaeological removals

The term "looting" is also sometimes used to refer to antiquities being removed from countries by unauthorized people, either domestic people breaking the law seeking monetary gain or foreign nations, which are usually more interested in prestige or previously, "scientific discovery". An example might be the removal of the contents of Egyptian tombs that were transported to museums across the West. [44]

Looting of industry

As part of World War II reparations, Soviet forces systematically plundered the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, including the Recovered Territories, which later transferred to Poland. The Soviets sent valuable industrial equipment, infrastructure and whole factories to the Soviet Union. [45] [46]

Many factories in the rebels' zone of Aleppo during the Syrian Civil War were reported as being plundered and their assets transferred abroad. [47] [48] Agricultural production and electronic power plants were also seized, to be sold elsewhere. [49] [50]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iraq Museum</span> National museum of Iraq

The Iraq Museum is the national museum of Iraq, located in Baghdad. It is sometimes informally called the National Museum of Iraq. The Iraq Museum contains precious relics from the Mesopotamian, Abbasid, and Persian civilizations. It was looted during and after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Despite international efforts, only some of the stolen artifacts have been returned. After being closed for many years while being refurbished, and rarely open for public viewing, the museum was officially reopened in February 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Museum of Afghanistan</span> Museum in Kabul, Afghanistan

The National Museum of Afghanistan is a two-story building located across the street from the Darul Aman Palace in the Darulaman area of Kabul, Afghanistan. It was once considered to be one of the world's finest museums. There have been reports about expanding the museum or building a new larger one.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict</span> International treaty

The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is the first international treaty that focuses exclusively on the protection of cultural property in armed conflict. It was signed at The Hague, Netherlands, on 14 May 1954 and entered into force on 7 August 1956. As of July 2021, it has been ratified by 133 states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nazi plunder</span> Nazi looting in World War II

Nazi plunder was organized stealing of art and other items which occurred as a result of the organized looting of European countries during the time of the Nazi Party in Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Repatriation (cultural property)</span> Return of stolen art to the original owners or heirs

Repatriation is the return of the cultural property, often referring to ancient or looted art, to their country of origin or former owners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeological looting in Iraq</span> Archaeological looting occurring in Iraq

Archaeological looting in Iraq took place since at least the late 19th century. The chaos following war provided the opportunity to pillage everything that was not nailed down. There were also attempts to protect the sites such as the period between April 9, 2003, when the staff vacated the Iraq Museum and April 15, 2003, when US forces arrived in sufficient numbers to "restore some semblance of order." Some 15,000 cultural artifacts disappeared in that time. Over the years approximately 14,800 were recovered from within and outside Iraq and taken under the protection of the Iraqi government.

American Council for Cultural Policy (ACCP) was a not-for-profit organization formed in 2002 by a group of politically influential antiquities dealers, collectors and lawyers in the United States, with its headquarters in New York and representatives in Washington D.C. The goal of the organization was described by Ashton Hawkins as "informing the public on arts issues." The organization is now defunct and its website (culturalpolicycouncil.org) has been removed from the web. Some of its members now actively take part in Cultural Policy Research Institute.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Matthew Bogdanos</span> American lawyer

Colonel Matthew Bogdanos is an Assistant District Attorney in Manhattan, author, boxer, and a retired colonel in the United States Marine Corps. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Bogdanos deployed to Afghanistan where he was awarded a Bronze Star for actions against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban. In 2003, while on active duty in the Marine Corps, he led an investigation into the looting of Iraq's National Museum, and was subsequently awarded the National Humanities Medal for his efforts. Returning to the District Attorney’s Office in 2010, he created and still heads the Antiquities Trafficking Unit, “the only one of its kind in the world.” The unit investigated looted art and helped repatriate them to their countries of origin. Matthew Bogdanos has faced opposition during his tenure at the Antiquities Trafficking Unit from museums impacted by his investigations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Looted art</span> Art that was taken illegally

Looted art has been a consequence of looting during war, natural disaster and riot for centuries. Looting of art, archaeology and other cultural property may be an opportunistic criminal act or may be a more organized case of unlawful or unethical pillage by the victor of a conflict. The term "looted art" reflects bias, and whether particular art has been taken legally or illegally is often the subject of conflicting laws and subjective interpretations of governments and people; use of the term "looted art" in reference to a particular art object implies that the art was taken illegally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iran–United States relations after 1979</span> Overview of Iranian–American relations after the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran

Since the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran has been embroiled in tense relations with the U.S. and its allies. Following the hostage crisis, both countries severed relations. Since then, both countries have been involved in numerous direct confrontations, diplomatic incidents, and proxy wars throughout the Middle East, which has caused the tense nature of the relationship between the two to be called an 'international crisis'. Both countries have often accused each other of breaking international law on several occasions. The U.S. has often accused Iran of sponsoring terrorism and of illegally maintaining a nuclear program, as well as using strong rhetoric against Israel, of which Iran has questioned its legitimacy and its right to exist while supporting Hamas, an antizionist terrorist group in the Gaza Strip. Meanwhile, Iran has often accused the U.S. of human rights violations and of meddling in their affairs, especially within the Iranian Democracy Movement.

The antiquities trade is the exchange of antiquities and archaeological artifacts from around the world. This trade may be illicit or completely legal. The legal antiquities trade abides by national regulations, allowing for extraction of artifacts for scientific study whilst maintaining archaeological and anthropological context. The illicit antiquities trade involves non-scientific extraction that ignores the archaeological and anthropological context from the artifacts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeology of Afghanistan</span>

Located on the strategic crossroads of Iran, India, China and Central Asia, Afghanistan boasts a diverse cultural and religious history. The soil is rich with archaeological treasures and art that have for decades come under threat of destruction and damage. Archaeology of Afghanistan, mainly conducted by British and French antiquarians, has had a heavy focus on the treasure filled Buddhist monasteries that lined the silk road from the 1st c. BCE – 6th c. AD. Particularly the ancient civilizations in the region during the Hellenistic period and the Kushan Empire. The world's oldest-known oil paintings, dating to the 7th c. AD, were found in caves in Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley. The valley is also home to the famous Buddhas of Bamiyan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosul Museum</span> National History Museum in Mosul, Iraq

The Mosul Museum is the second largest museum in Iraq after the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad. It was heavily looted during the 2003 Iraq War. Founded in 1952, the museum consisted of a small hall until a new building was opened in 1972, containing ancient Assyrian artifacts. The museums net worth and content value are around 50 to 80 to 250 million according to museum specialists during 2013 at least. Hikmat Al-Aswad was the director from 2004 to 2011. The current director is Zaid Ghazi Saadallah.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State</span> Part of the War against the Islamic State (2014–present)

Since 2014, the Islamic State has destroyed cultural heritage on an unprecedented scale, primarily in Iraq and Syria, but also in Libya. These attacks and demolitions targeted a variety of ancient and medieval artifacts, museums, libraries, and places of worship, among other sites of importance to human history. Between June 2014 and February 2015, the Islamic State's Salafi jihadists plundered and destroyed at least 28 historic religious buildings in Mosul alone. Many of the valuables that were looted during these demolitions were used to bolster the economy of the Islamic State.

The Antiquities Coalition(AC) is a non-governmental organization working to stop the looting and trafficking of antiquities. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeological looting</span> Theft of artifacts from archaeological sites

Archaeological looting is the illicit removal of artifacts from an archaeological site. Such looting is the major source of artifacts for the antiquities market. Looting typically involves either the illegal exportation of artifacts from their country of origin or the domestic distribution of looted goods. Looting has been linked to the economic and political stability of the possessing nation, with levels of looting increasing during times of crisis, but it has been known to occur during peacetimes and some looters take part in the practice as a means of income, referred to as subsistence looting. However, looting is also endemic in so-called "archaeological countries" like Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus and other areas of the Mediterranean Basin, as well as many areas of Africa, South East Asia and Central and South America, which have a rich heritage of archaeological sites, a large proportion of which are still unknown to formal archaeological science. Many countries have antique looting laws which state that the removal of the cultural object without formal permission is illegal and considered theft. Looting is not only illegal; the practice may also threaten access to cultural heritage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Spoils of War (symposium)</span> International symposium

"The Spoils of War—World War II and Its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property" was an international symposium held in New York City in 1995 to discuss the artworks, cultural property, and historic sites damaged, lost, and plundered as a result of World War II. The three-day event was sponsored by the Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the end of the war. The conference was organized by Elizabeth Simpson, an archaeologist and professor at the Bard Graduate Center.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blood antiquities</span> Archaeological artefacts looted during conflict

Blood antiquities are archaeological artefacts that have been plundered during conflicts and have been used to fund these wars. The looting of archaeological sites and the illicit trafficking of cultural property is, and has been, a common practice for terrorist groups in war zones. The pieces mostly end up on the black market, art galleries and antique shops in Europe and North America, or in millionaire private collections. The looting of blood antiquities especially affects the Middle East, because it is a very conflictive area and at the same time with a great density of archaeological sites.

References

  1. ↑ "Baghdad protests over looting". BBC News. BBC. 2003-04-12. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
  2. ↑ "World: Americas Looting frenzy in quake city". BBC News. 1999-01-28. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
  3. ↑ "Argentine president resigns". BBC News. 2001-12-21. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
  4. ↑ "the definition of looting". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
  5. ↑ "Booty – Define Booty at Dictionary.com".
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rule 52. Pillage is prohibited., Customary IHL Database, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)/Cambridge University Press.
  7. ↑ Hague Convention on the Law and Customs of War on Land (Hague II), article 28.
  8. ↑ Sawer, Philip Sherwell and Patrick (2010-01-16). "Haiti earthquake: looting and gun-fights break out" . The Daily Telegraph. ISSN   0307-1235. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2020-07-13.
  9. ↑ "Indonesian food minister tolerates looting". BBC News. July 21, 1998. Retrieved May 11, 2010.
  10. ↑ Jacob, Binu; Mawson, Anthony R.; Payton, Marinelle; Guignard, John C. (2008). "Disaster Mythology and Fact: Hurricane Katrina and Social Attachment". Public Health Reports. 123 (5): 555–566. doi:10.1177/003335490812300505. ISSN   0033-3549. PMC   2496928 . PMID   18828410.
  11. 1 2 Sandholtz, Wayne (2008). "Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder". European Journal of International Relations. 14 (1): 101–131. doi:10.1177/1354066107087766. ISSN   1354-0661. S2CID   143721778.
  12. ↑ Hsi-sheng Chi, Warlord politics in China, 1916–1928, Stanford University Press, 1976, ISBN   0804708940, str. 93
  13. ↑ Henry Hoyle Howorth History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part 1 the Mongols Proper and the Kalmyks, Cosimo Inc. 2008.
  14. ↑ A History of the Franks, Gregory of Tours. Pantianos classics, 1916
  15. ↑ John K. Thorton, African Background in American Colonization, in The Cambridge economic history of the United States, Stanley L. Engerman, Robert E. Gallman (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN   0521394422, p. 87. "African states waged war to acquire slaves [...] raids that appear to have been more concerned with obtaining loot (including slaves) than other objectives."
  16. ↑ Sir John Bagot Glubb, The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, 1963, p. 283. "...thousand Christian captives formed part of the loot and were subsequently sold as slaves in the markets of Syria".
  17. ↑ Cuno, James (2002). Whose Culture?: The Promise of Museums and the Debate over Antiquities. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0691154435.
  18. ↑ (in Polish) J. R. Kudelski, Tajemnice nazistowskiej grabieży polskich zbiorów sztuki, Warszawa 2004.
  19. ↑ "Nazi loot claim 'compelling'". BBC News. October 2, 2002. Retrieved May 11, 2010.
  20. ↑ Wayne H. Bowen, The History of Saudi Arabia, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 73. ISBN   0313340129
  21. ↑ (in Polish) Andrzej Garlicki, Z dziejów Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1986, ISBN   8302022454, p. 147
  22. ↑ Myers, Steven Lee, Iraq Museum Reopens Six Years After Looting, New York Times, February 23, 2009
  23. ↑ Kelly, Michael (1991-03-24). "The Rape and Rescue of Kuwaiti City". The New Republic. ISSN   0028-6583 . Retrieved 2020-06-10.
  24. ↑ "Oil Fires in Iraq". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2016-09-02. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
  25. ↑ Barker, Craig. "Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq's national museum". The Conversation. Retrieved 2020-07-13.
  26. ↑ Samuel, Sigal (2018-03-19). "It's Disturbingly Easy to Buy Iraq's Archeological Treasures". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-07-13.
  27. ↑ Swann, Steve (2019-05-02). "'Loot-to-order' antiquities sold on Facebook". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
  28. ↑ Harkin, James. "The Race to Save Syria's Archaeological Treasures". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
  29. ↑ Baker, Aryn (2012-09-12). "Syria's Looted Past: How Ancient Artifacts Are Being Traded for Guns". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2020-07-10.
  30. ↑ Jaber, Hala; Arbuthnott, George. "Syrians loot Roman treasures to buy guns". The Times . ISSN   0140-0460 . Retrieved 2020-07-10.
  31. ↑ Barbara T. Hoffman, Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 57. ISBN   0521857643
  32. ↑ E. Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Marc Weller, The Kuwait Crisis: Basic Documents, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 154. ISBN   0521463084
  33. ↑ Gannon, Megan. ""Space Archaeologists" Show Spike in Looting at Egypt's Ancient Sites". Scientific American. Retrieved 2022-09-20.
  34. ↑ "'Cultural War': Iraq Mourns Relics Destroyed by ISIS". NBC News. 29 June 2015. Retrieved 2022-09-20.
  35. ↑ "Taliban looted, torched Afghan homes after evicting residents -Human Rights Watch". Reuters. 2021-07-07. Retrieved 2022-09-20.
  36. ↑ Wagner, Dennis (2020-06-15). "'Peaceful protests got hijacked': Some criminals used George Floyd protests as cover for looting, police say". USA Today. Retrieved 2022-09-20.
  37. ↑ Tingston, Nhx (June 6, 2020). "Looter from BLM and George Floyd Protest Bragged About Theft on Facebook While Offering Stolen Goods for Sale". Techtimes. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
  38. ↑ "List: Austin businesses looted during protests". kvue.com. 2020-06-01. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  39. ↑ Voytko, Lisette (2020-05-31). "Target Closes 175 Stores Nationwide In Wake Of George Floyd Protests, Looting". Forbes. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  40. ↑ "VIDEO: People loot Minneapolis Target in wake of George Floyd protests". KRON4. 2020-05-28. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  41. ↑ "Two arrested for beating, looting homeless man in Srinagar: Police". The Kashmir Walla. 2022-09-12. Archived from the original on September 12, 2022. Retrieved 2022-09-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  42. ↑ Fylyppov, Olexsandr; Lister, Tim (May 2, 2022). "Russians plunder $5M farm vehicles from Ukraine – to find they've been remotely disabled". CNN. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  43. ↑ "'Hungry' Russian Soldiers Loot Ukrainian Shops". rferl. Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty. 2 March 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  44. ↑ "Egypt's Antiquities Chief Combines Passion, Clout to Protect Artifacts". National Geographic News. October 24, 2006. Archived from the original on November 6, 2006.
  45. ↑ "Między Modernizacja a Marnotrawstwem" (in Polish). Institute of National Remembrance. Archived from the original on 2005-03-21. See also other copy online Archived 2007-04-26 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ↑ "Armia Czerwona na Dolnym Śląski" (in Polish). Institute of National Remembrance. Archived from the original on 2005-03-21.
  47. ↑ "Turkey looted Syria factory: Damascus – World News". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 January 2013. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
  48. ↑ Webel, Charles; Tomass, Mark (2017). Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-1315469164.
  49. ↑ Aljaleel, Alaa; Darke, Diana (2019). The Last Sanctuary in Aleppo: A remarkable true story of courage, hope and survival. Headline. ISBN   978-1472260550.
  50. ↑ Badcock, James (2019-01-14). "Turkey accused of plundering olive oil from Syria to sell in the EU" . The Telegraph. ISSN   0307-1235. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2020-07-13.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.