Age of criminal responsibility

Minimum age of reduced criminal responsibility by country

The age of criminal responsibility is the age below which a child is deemed incapable of having committed a criminal offence. In legal terms, it is referred to as a defence/defense of infancy, which is a form of defense known as an excuse so that defendants falling within the definition of an "infant" are excluded from criminal liability for their actions, if at the relevant time, they had not reached an age of criminal responsibility. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and the type of offense committed. ^[1]

Under the English common law the defense of infancy was expressed as a set of presumptions in a doctrine known as doli incapax. ^[2] A child under the age of seven was presumed incapable of committing a crime. The presumption was conclusive, prohibiting the prosecution from offering evidence that the child had the capacity to appreciate the nature and wrongfulness of what they had done. Children aged 7–13 were presumed incapable of committing a crime but the presumption was rebuttable. The prosecution could overcome the presumption by proving that the child understood what they were doing and that it was wrong. In fact, capacity was a necessary element of the state's case (thus, the rule of sevens doctrine arose). If the state failed to offer sufficient evidence of capacity, the infant was entitled to have the charges dismissed at the close of the state's evidence. Doli incapax was abolished in England and Wales in 1998 for children over the age of 10, ^{[3] [4]} but persists in other common law jurisdictions.

Terminology

The terminology regarding such a defense varies by jurisdiction and sphere. "Defense of infancy" is a mainly US term. ^[5] The "age of criminal responsibility" is used by most European countries, the UK, ^[6] Australia, New Zealand ^[7] and other Commonwealth of Nations countries. ^[8] Other instances of usage have included the terms age of accountability , ^[9] age of responsibility, ^[10] and age of liability, ^[11]

The term minimum age of criminal responsibility (MACR) is a term commonly used in the literature. ^{[12] [7]}

The rationale behind the age of accountability laws are the same as those behind the insanity defense, insinuating both the mentally disabled and the young lack apprehension. ^[13]

The age of criminal responsibility

See also: Minor (law)

Governments enact laws to label certain types of activity as wrongful or illegal. Behavior of a more antisocial nature can be stigmatized in a more positive way to show society's disapproval through the use of the word criminal. In this context, laws tend to use the phrase, "age of criminal responsibility" in two different ways: ^[14]

1. As a definition of the process for dealing with an alleged offender, the range of ages specifies the exemption of a child from the adult system of prosecution and punishment. Most jurisdictions develop special juvenile justice systems in parallel to the adult criminal justice system. Here, the hearings are essentially welfare-based and deal with children as in need of compulsory measures of treatment and/or care. Children are diverted into this system when they have committed what would have been an offense as an adult.
2. As the physical capacity of a child to commit a crime. Hence, children are deemed incapable of committing some sexual or other acts requiring abilities of a more mature quality.

Discussion

See also: Criminal responsibility in French law

This is an aspect of the public policy of parens patriae . In the criminal law, each state will consider the nature of its own society and the available evidence of the age at which antisocial behaviors begins to manifest itself. Some societies will have qualities of indulgence toward the young and inexperienced, and will not wish them to be exposed to the criminal law system before all other avenues of response have been exhausted. Hence, some states have a policy of doli incapax (i.e. incapable of wrong) and exclude liability for all acts and omissions that would otherwise have been criminal after reaching a specified age. ^[15] Hence, no matter what the child may have done, there cannot be a criminal prosecution. However, although no criminal liability is inferred, other aspects of law may be applied. For example, in Nordic countries, an offense by a person under 15 years of age is considered mostly a symptom of problems in child's development. This will cause the social authorities to take appropriate administrative measures to secure the development of the child. Such measures may range from counseling to placement at a special care unit. Being non-judicial, the measures are not dependent on the severity of the offense committed but on the overall circumstances of the child. ^[14]

The policy of treating minors as incapable of committing crimes does not necessarily reflect modern sensibilities. Thus, if the rationale of the excuse is that children below a certain age lack the capacity to form the mens rea of an offense, this may no longer be a sustainable argument. Indeed, given the different speeds at which people may develop both physically and intellectually, any form of explicit age limit may be arbitrary and irrational. Yet, the sense that children do not deserve to be exposed to criminal punishment in the same way as adults remains strong. Children have not had experience of life, nor do they have the same mental and intellectual capacities as adults. Hence, it might be considered unfair to treat young children in the same way as adults. ^[14]

In Scotland, the age of criminal responsibility was raised from 8 to 12 by the implementation of the Age of Criminal Responsibility (Scotland) Act 2019, ^[16] which came into force on 31 March 2020. ^{[17] [18]} In England and Wales and Northern Ireland, the age of responsibility is 10 years, and in the Netherlands and Canada the age of responsibility is 12 years. Sweden, Finland, and Norway all set the age at 15 years. In the United States, the minimum age for federal crimes is 11 years. State minimums vary, with 24 states having no defined minimum age, and defined minimums ranging from 7 years in Florida to 13 years in Maryland and New Hampshire. ^[19]

As the treaty parties of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court could not agree on a minimum age for criminal responsibility, they chose to solve the question procedurally and excluded the jurisdiction of the Court for persons under eighteen years.^{[ citation needed ]}

Some jurisdictions do not have a set fixed minimum age, but leave discretion to prosecutors to argue or the judges to rule on whether the child or adolescent ("juvenile") defendant understood that what was being done was wrong. If the defendant did not understand the difference between right and wrong, it may not be considered appropriate to treat such a person as culpable. Alternatively, the lack of real fault in the offender can be recognized by rulings that avoid criminal sentences and/or address more practical matters of parental responsibility by adjusting the rights of parents to unsupervised custody, or by separate criminal proceedings against the parents for breach of their duties as parents.^{[ citation needed ]}

By country

The following are the minimum ages at which people may be charged with a criminal offence in each country:

Country	Age (reduced) [a]	Age (full) [b]	Ref	Notes
Afghanistan	12		[20]	Minimum age of criminal responsibility is 12. Children aged 7–12 can be subject to warnings, supervision by social services, or confinement to a rehabilitation centre.
Albania	14	16	[21]	Article 1 of the Code distinguishes between offences and contraventions. Article 12 mandates that the latter (which are less serious) have a higher age limit of 16.
Algeria	13	18	[22]
Andorra	12	18/21	[23]
Angola	14		[24]	Minimum and maximum sentences are reduced by two thirds between 14 and 16, and half between 16 and 18. The needs of rehabilitation and social reintegration are also to be taken into account for minors.
Antigua and Barbuda	8	16	[25]	According to Articles 1 and 3 of the Juvenile Act, Courts must have regard to the welfare of those under 16.
Argentina	16	18	[26] [27]
Armenia	14		[28]
Australia	10/14	18/21	[29]	Age of criminal responsibility in Australia. Review under way since 2019. [30] Rebuttable presumption of incapacity until age 14. [29] [31] Juvenile offenders aged 14–17 are always held criminally responsible, but they are always tried as young/juvenile offenders, meaning generally more lenient sentences compared to adults. Also, juvenile offenders' photos and names usually cannot be released by the media, and access to the juvenile court list/courtroom is restricted to authorized people only. Nevertheless, juvenile offenders convicted still obtain a permanent (but usually sealable or annuable) criminal record as if they were adults (hence the criminal responsibility), but with generally reduced waiting times and often more lenient standards for convictions to become 'spent' or 'annulled' depending on Commonwealth, State, or Territory legislation applicable. Full adult criminal responsibility in terms of sentencing and conviction annullement eligibility at age 18 (21 in Victoria).
Austria	14	18/21	[32]
Azerbaijan	14	16	[33]
Bahrain	15		[34]
Bangladesh	9		[35]
Belarus	14	16	[36]	16 is the standard age of criminal liability in Belarus. Minors between 14 and 16 years old are responsible only for certain severe crimes, according to article 27 of the Belarusian Criminal Code.
Belgium	12		[37]
Belize	7		[38]
Benin	13		[39]
Bhutan	10		[35]
Bolivia	14		[40] [41]	Lowered in July 2014 from 16 to 14.
Bosnia and Herzegovina	14		[ citation needed ]
Botswana	8		[42]
Brazil	12	18	[43] [44] [45] [46]	Full criminal responsibility from age 18, with a juvenile judiciary system for offenders aged between 12 and 18 who can be sentenced to a maximum of 3 years of imprisonment in separate juvenile jails.
Brunei	7		[47]
Bulgaria	14		[48]	The maximum sentence that can be imposed on juvenile offenders can be no more than 12 years of imprisonment if the offenders are between 16 and 18 and no more than 10 years if they are between 14 and 16. Juvenile offenders serve their sentences in separate prisons up to the age of 18.
Burkina Faso	13		[49]
Burundi	15		[ citation needed ]
Cambodia	14		[35]
Cameroon	10		[50]
Canada	12	14	[51]	Children aged 12 or 13 can be sentenced to no more than 10 years of imprisonment, and children aged 14-17 can be sentenced to life imprisonment
Cape Verde	16		[ citation needed ]
Central African Republic	14		[50]
Chad	13		[50]
Chile	14	16	[52] [53]
China	12	16	[35] [54]	Since 1 March 2021, children between 12 and 14 can be held criminally responsible for intentional homicide or injury leading to death or severe disability committed with extreme cruelty subject to approval by the Supreme People's Procuratorate. Notes 14 is the absolute minimum for acts that constitute the following crimes: homicide, wounding resulting in death, rape, robbery, arson, explosion, planting of toxic substances, and trafficking in dangerous drugs. The minimum age for other crimes are 16. In Hong Kong, the minimum age is 10 [55] and in Macau, 16.
Colombia	14	18	[45]
Comoros	13/14-15		[50]	Depends whether Sharia Law or the Penal Code is applied.
Costa Rica	12		[56]	Even though legal procedures and punishment are different for offenders who are under 18, all offenders who are 12 or older may be sentenced to as much as 15 years of incarceration.
Cote d'Ivoire	10		[ citation needed ]
Croatia	14	18	[57]
Cuba	16	18/21	[58]
Cyprus	14		[ citation needed ]
Czech Republic	15	18	[59]
Denmark (including Faroe Islands) [60]	15	18	[37]
DR Congo	14	16	[61]
Djibouti	13		[50]
Ecuador	12	18	[62]
El Salvador	12	18	[ citation needed ]
Egypt	12		[50]
Equatorial Guinea	16		[ citation needed ]
Eritrea	12		[50]
Estonia	14	18/21	[37]
Eswatini	7	14	[50]
Ethiopia	9		[50]
Fiji	10		[ citation needed ]
Finland	15	18	[63]
France	13	18	[37]
Gabon	13		[50]
Gambia	12		[ citation needed ]
Georgia	14		[64]	Section 33 of Criminal code of Georgia defines that minors between 14 and 17 can be charged with criminal responsibility by juvenile justice.
Germany	14	18/21	[65]	Minors between 14 and 17 are sentenced by juvenile justice. A young adult between 18 and 21 years may still be sentenced by juvenile justice if considered mentally immature.
Ghana	12		[ citation needed ]
Greece	15	18/21	[ citation needed ]
Guinea	10		[ citation needed ]
Guinea Bissau	16		[ citation needed ]
Hong Kong	10		[55]
Hungary	12	18	[66]	12 only for premeditated homicide, voluntary manslaughter and bodily harm leading to death or resulting in life-threatening injuries; 14 for other crimes; Full criminal responsibility from age 18. [66]
Iceland	15	18	[37]
India	7	12	[35]	Rebuttable presumption of incapacity until age 12. Minors could be detained for up to a maximum of 3 years, but in 2015, this maximum was raised to 7 years and minors aged between 16 and 18 can be tried as adults for heinous offences such as murder, rape, etc. They cannot, however, be sentenced to death or life imprisonment.
Indonesia	12	18	[67]
Iran	9 (girls), 15 (boys)		[68] [69]
Iraq	9		[35]
Ireland	10	12	[70]	Exception for children aged 10 or 11, who can be charged with murder, manslaughter, rape, or aggravated sexual assault.
Israel	12		[35]
Italy	14		[37]	Juvenile judiciary system for offenders aged between 14 and 18; separate juvenile halls.
Japan	14		[35]	Juvenile Training Schooling for offenders aged between 11 and 14.
Jordan	12		[71]
Kazakhstan	14	16	[72]
Kenya	8		[50]
Kosovo	14	18/21	[73]
Kuwait	7		[35]
Kyrgyzstan	14	18	[74]
Laos	15		[ citation needed ]
Latvia	14	18	[ citation needed ]
Lebanon	7		[75]
Lesotho	10		[50]
Liberia	7		[50]
Libya	14	18	[76]
Liechtenstein	14	18/21	[ citation needed ]
Lithuania	14	16	[ citation needed ]
Luxembourg	18		[77]
Madagascar	13		[50]
Malawi	7		[50]
Malaysia	10		[78] [79]	Notes Malaysia has a dual system of secular and Islamic law, which has resulted in a number of different minimum ages of responsibility depending on which branch of the law is applicable. Under the Penal Code, a person can be held criminally responsible from the age of 10. [Penal Code, Article 82. See also Child Act Article 2] Under the Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997, Muslim children can be held criminally responsible from the onset of puberty. [Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997, Articles 2 and 51] Offences under the Internal Security Act can be prosecuted regardless of age. [Essential (Security Cases) Regulations 1975, Article 3] (The act was repealed in 2012 and replaced with Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012)
Maldives	15	18	[80]	Sharia law allows pubescent minors below 15 to be held responsible for certain severe crimes, as well as minors 15 and above without a rebuttal of presumption of incapacity.
Mali	13		[50]
Mauritania	7		[ citation needed ]
Mauritius	0	14	[50]	There is no minimum age for criminal responsibility. Children below age 14 can only face incarceration if they are proven to have enough discernment between right and wrong.
Mexico	12	16	[81]	Incarceration starting at age 14. Other measures applied for ages 12–13.
Moldova	14	16/21	[ citation needed ]
Mongolia	14	16	[82]	Children between 14 and 16 years old responsible only for certain severe crimes.
Montenegro	14		[ citation needed ]
Morocco	12		[50]
Mozambique	16		[ citation needed ]
Myanmar	7	12	[35]
Namibia	7	12	[50]
Nepal	10		[35]
Netherlands	12/16-21	16-21/22	[37] [83]	From age 16, persons may be tried as adults or as children ("jeugdstrafrecht"). The maximum age for a person to be tried as a minor is 21.
New Zealand	10	14	[84] [85] [86]	Rebuttable presumption of incapacity until age 14. Children aged 10 and 11 can only be convicted of murder or manslaughter; children aged 12 and 13 can only be convicted of crimes with a maximum imprisonment of at least 14 years, but this may be increased circumstantially. See Youth justice in New Zealand.
Nicaragua	13		[ citation needed ]
Niger	13		[50]
Nigeria	7		[50]
North Korea	14		[35]
North Macedonia	16	18	[ citation needed ]	Persons aged 14 to 16 years at the time they committed an offence, known as "younger juveniles" within the Criminal Code, can only be sentenced to educational measures
Norway	15	18	[87]
Oman	9		[35]
Pakistan	7	12	[35]	There is a rebuttable presumption that a child aged between 7 and 12 years old is incapable of committing a crime.
Palau	10		[ citation needed ]
Papua New Guinea	7		[88]
Panama	12		[ citation needed ]	Lowered in 2010 from 14 to 12.
Paraguay	14		[89]	Minor offenders can be sentenced to a maximum of 8 years of imprisonment.
Peru	14	18	[45]	Notes 18 is the standard age of criminal liability in Peru. However, minors from 16–17 years old at the moment of the crime may be subject to 6 to 10 years in prison in case of homicide, femicide, extortion, vandalism, rape or being member of a criminal gang. Minors from 14–15 years at the moment of any of those same crimes may be subject to 4 to 8 years in prison.
Philippines	15	18	[90] [91] [92]	On 28 January 2019, the House of Representatives passed a bill proposing to lower the minimum age of criminal responsibility from 15 years to 12 years with a vote of 146–34. [93] As of 2020 [update] , some child rights advocates were opposing this and other related bills in favor of a less fragmented approach addressing children's issues. [94]
Poland	13	17	[95]	Notes 17 is the standard age of criminal liability in Poland. Minors from the age of 15 can be tried as adults in relation to especially heinous crimes such as treason, assassination of Polish President, murder, homicide, serious bodily harm, causing a catastrophe, assault of a public servant, hostage-taking, rape and robbery, when "the circumstances of the case and the mental state of development of the perpetrator, his characteristics and personal situation warrant it, and especially when previously applied educational, therapeutic or corrective measures have proved ineffective". On the other hand, the Court may choose to apply juvenile measures for perpetrators above the age of 17 but below the age of 18, if "the circumstances of the case and the mental state of development of the perpetrator, his characteristics and personal situation warrant it". Juvenile correctional proceedings liability age is 13. Juvenile educational and therapeutic proceedings liability applies to all persons under the age of 18 (including persons below 13 years of age). [96] The maximum possible sentence that can be imposed on offenders taking criminal liability under 18 years of age is 25 years' imprisonment.
Portugal	16	18/21	[97]
Qatar	7		[35]
Romania	16	18	[37]	A child aged 14 to 16 can only be held criminally liable where it can be proved that he or she had "discernment" Notes For offences for which an adult would be sentenced to life imprisonment, a person between the ages of 14 and 18 would be sentenced to no more than 15 years of "strict imprisonment" For offences for which an adult would be sentenced to "severe detention" a person between the ages of 14 and 18 would be sentenced to no more than 12 years of "strict imprisonment"
Russia	14	16	[98]	Notes 16 by default, 14 years specifically for crimes as listed in Section 20 of the Criminal code, like murder, rape, robbery, extortion, kidnapping, motor vehicle theft, terror attack, stealing restricted substances like explosives or narcotics, aggravated anti-social behaviour, vandalism, false report of a terror attack.
Rwanda	14		[ citation needed ]
San Marino	14	18/21	[99] [100]
São Tomé and Príncipe	16		[ citation needed ]
Saudi Arabia	12		[35]
Senegal	13		[ citation needed ]
Serbia	14	18	[101]	Persons aged 14 or 15 ("younger juveniles") can only be sentenced to educational measures
Seychelles	7		[50]
Sierra Leone	14		[ citation needed ]
Singapore	10		[102] [103]	The Penal Code Review Committee proposed to increase the age to 10. Offenders between 16 and 21 are classed as Young Adults and may be considered for reformative training.
Slovakia	14		[ citation needed ]
Slovenia	14	18/21	[37]
Solomon Islands	8		[ citation needed ]
Somalia	14/15		[50]	15 in Somaliland, 14 in the rest of the country.
South Africa	12	14	[104] [105]	The age of criminal capacity was raised to 12 by the Child Justice Amendment Act, 2019. There is a rebuttable presumption that a child between the ages of 12 and 14 lacks criminal capacity.
South Korea	12	14	[35]
South Sudan	12		[50]
Spain	14	18	[106] [107] [108]	Notes A person under the age of 18 can be sentenced to closed detention for a single offence if: (i) the facts establish that the person has committed a felony under the Penal Code or special penal laws; (ii) the relevant crime was classified as a misdemeanour, but involved violence or intimidation against persons or has generated serious risk to life or physical safety; or (iii) the acts are classified as crimes committed in groups, organisations or associations Persons aged 14 or 15 may be sentenced to a maximum of three years detention and persons aged 16 or 17 may not be sentenced to more than six years detention.
Sri Lanka	12	14	[35]	Rebuttable presumption of incapacity until age 14.
Sudan	12	18	[109]
Sweden	15	18	[37]	Previously the full age was 21, was reduced down to 18 in 2021. [110]
Switzerland	15	18	[37]	Children aged 15 years at the time an offence was committed cannot be sentenced to more than one year of detention Notes A child aged 16 or over when an offence was committed may not be sentenced to more than four years in detention, and only where: (i) he or she committed an offence for which an adult could be sentenced to detention of more than three months; or (ii) he or she has committed an offence under Article 122 of the Criminal Code, related to intentionally inflicting a life-threatening injury; or (iii) he or she commits robbery as a member of a group formed for the purposes of carrying out repeated robberies or thefts under Article 140(3) of the Criminal Code; or (iv) the behaviour of the offender is such as to show particular ruthlessness or the behaviour or purpose of the act reveal a highly reprehensible state of mind
Syria	10		[35]
Taiwan	12/14	18	[111] [112]	Minors between 12 and 14 cannot be trialed in criminal court, but could still be sentenced to juvenile probation or sent to correctional schools. Minors between 14 and 18 are subject to Criminal Code but qualify for reduction of sentence. Finally, the death penalty and life imprisonment cannot be sentenced to minor offenders.
Tajikistan	14	16	[113]
Tanzania	7		[50]
Thailand	7	14	[35]
Timor-Leste	16		[35]
Togo	14		[50]
Turkey	12	18	[114]
Turkmenistan	14	16	[35]
Tunisia	13		[ citation needed ]
Uganda	12		[50]
Ukraine	14	16	[37]
United Arab Emirates	7		[35]
United Kingdom	10/12	12/15	[115] [116] [117] [16] [17] [18]	10 in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Usually persons aged 10–11 will only be imprisoned in very serious cases, such as murder. Even more so the outcome for youth (12–17) criminal proceedings are usually age categorised (currently it will depend on whether the offender is under 12, under 14, under 16 or under 18, with the older the offender the more severity of punishment, especially for serious crimes). 12 in Scotland. Children under 12 cannot be convicted or get a criminal record; from 12 to 15, decision usually made by the Children's Reporter whether to refer to a children's hearing, which can lead to a criminal record, but could be prosecuted for a criminal offence if the offence is serious.
United States	varies by state [118]	varies by state [118]	[119]	At the federal level, the minimum age of juvenile delinquency is 11 years, while 24 states have no minimum age of delinquency. The standards for transferal of juveniles to adult courts varies by state and may combine statutory limits with prosecutorial and judicial discretion. [120] [19]
Uruguay	13	18	[121]
Uzbekistan	13	16	[35]	"Persons can be held criminally responsible for all offences committed after they have reached the age of 16, and for intentional killing from the age of 13, and for other specifically named offences from the age of 14. [Criminal Code, Article 17]"
Vanuatu	10		[ citation needed ]
Vietnam	14	16	[35]
Yemen	7		[35]
Zambia	8	12	[50]
Zimbabwe	7	14	[50]

Juvenile courts

In some countries, a juvenile court is a court of special jurisdiction charged with adjudicating cases involving crimes committed by those who have not yet reached a specific age. If convicted in a juvenile court, the offender is found "responsible" for their actions as opposed to "guilty" of a criminal offense. Sometimes, in some jurisdictions (such as the United States of America), a minor may be tried as an adult.

See also

• Age of candidacy
• Reasonable person
• Youth
• Youth rights
• Youth suffrage

Notes

Footnotes

1. For only certain severe crimes and/or rebuttable doli incapax. May also imply reduced sentencing/punishment for all crimes
2. For all crimes and/or full responsibility (in terms of sentencing).

References

1. Academy, The British (1 April 2022). "Age of Criminal Responsibility". Reframing Childhood Past and Present. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
2. "Doctrine of 'Doli Incapax' | Office of Justice Programs". www.ojp.gov. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
3. "Crime and Disorder Act 1998".
4. Department, Law Lords. "House of Lords - R v JTB (Appellant) (on appeal from the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division))". publications.parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
5. "6.2 Infancy, Intoxication, Ignorance, and Mistake". ER Services. Criminal Law. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
6. Stattin, Hekan, and David Magnusson. "Stability and change in criminal behaviour up to age 30." British Journal of Criminology 31.4 (1991): 327-346.
7. Papadodimitraki, Yanna (2016). "Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility (MACR) – Comparative Analysis International Profile – New Zealand" (PDF). Centre for Youth & Criminal Justice. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
8. Sharma, Vishnu D. (1970). "The Age of Criminal Responsibility in India". Journal of the Indian Law Institute. 12 (1): 139–50. JSTOR   43950059. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
9. Ranson, Stewart. "Public accountability in the age of neo-liberal governance." J. Education Policy 18.5 (2003): 459-480.
10. Platt, Anthony, and Bernard L. Diamond. "The origins of the right and wrong test of criminal responsibility and its subsequent development in the United States: An historical survey." Cal. L. Rev. 54 (1966): 1227.
11. Ferreira, Nuno. "Putting the age of criminal and tort liability into context: A dialogue between law and psychology." The International Journal of Children's Rights 16.1 (2008): 29-54.
12. McAlister, Siobhan; Carr, Nicola; Dwyer, Clare D.; Lloyd, Katrina (19 June 2017). "Raise the Age? Children's Attitudes Towards the Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility". papers.ssrn.com. SSRN   2988947. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
13. Roberts, Caton F., Stephen L. Golding, and Frank D. Fincham. "Implicit theories of criminal responsibility: Decision making and the insanity defense." Law and Human Behavior 11.3 (1987): 207.
14. KKIENERM. "Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice Module 13 Key Issues: Topic four - Justice for children in conflict with the law". unodc.org . Retrieved 8 October 2022.
15. Dalby JT. (1985). "Criminal liability in children". Canadian Journal of Criminology. 27 (2): 137–145. doi:10.3138/cjcrim.27.2.137.
16. "Youth justice: Raising the age of criminal responsibility". gov.scot. 7 May 2019. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
17. "The Age of Criminal Responsibility (Scotland) Act 2019 (Commencement No. 2) Regulations 2020". Legislation.gov.uk. 11 March 2020. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
18. "Young people and the law". Citizens Advice Scotland. Archived from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
19. Ward, Jill; Long, Isabelle (July 2023). "Minimum Age Laws for Juvenile Court Jurisdiction and Confinement" (PDF). nyjn.org. National Juvenile Justice Network. Retrieved 26 November 2024.
20. "Afghanistan Juvenile Code, Article 10" (PDF). ilo.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
21. "Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania, Article 12" (PDF). hidaa.gov.al. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
22. "Algerian Penal Code, Article 49" (PDF). premier-ministre.gov.dz. Retrieved 21 March 2018.^{[ permanent dead link ‍]}
23. "Criminal Code of Andorra, Article 2" (PDF). youthpolicy.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
24. "Angola". Archived from the original on 19 October 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
25. "Juvenile Act, Article 8" (PDF). gov.ag. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
26. "Debates Over Lowering the Criminal Responsibility Age". The Argentina Independent. Archived from the original on 15 August 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
27. "Ley 22.278 Régimen Penal de la Minoridad Articles 1–2". infoleg.mecon.gov.ar. Archived from the original on 9 January 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
28. "Criminal Code (2003) Article 24". www.parliament.am. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
29. "CRIMES ACT 1914 s 4M". Archived from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
30. "Council of Attorneys-General – Age of Criminal Responsibility Working Group Review". Law Council of Australia. 29 July 2020. Archived from the original on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2020. PDF Archived 27 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
31. "Crimes Act 1914 s 4N". Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
32. "Jugendgerichtsgesetz (1988) §1(1–2) and 4". www.ris.bka.gv.at. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
33. "Criminal Code of the Azerbaijan Republic (2000) Article 20 (1–2). [Note: unofficial translation.]". www.legislationline.org. Archived from the original on 13 August 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
34. "Bahrain - International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children" (PDF).
35. "Minimum Ages of Criminal Responsibility in Asia". Child Rights International Network . Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
36. "Criminal Code of the Republic of Belarus (1999). [Note: unofficial translation.]". www.cis-legislation.com. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
37. "Minimum Ages of Criminal Responsibility in Europe". Child Rights International Network . Archived from the original on 10 March 2017. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
38. "Juvenile Justice Information Portfolio - Committee on the Rights of the Child - 3. State Party Reports: Belize". www.unicef-irc.org. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
39. "Juvenile Justice Information Portfolio - Committee on the Rights of the Child - 3. State Party Reports: Benin". www.unicef-irc.org. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
40. "Rige Ley donde se reduce la edad de imputabilidad de los menores". Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
41. "Bolivia – Edad de responsabilidad penal ordinaria es desde los 18 años – JORNADA". Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
42. "Botswana National Child Protection Legislation" (PDF).
43. Federal Constitution (in Portuguese) Archived 5 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Article 228. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
44. Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (pt) Archived 7 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine , Seção V. Retrieved 2 May 2013
45. "Progress of Nations 1997 Special Protections – Progress and Disparity". Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
46. "Folha de S.Paulo". Archived from the original on 12 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
47. "Inhuman sentencing of children in Brunei Darussalam".
48. "Bulgarian Criminal Code (in Bulgarian). Accessed 13 January 2021". Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
49. "Juvenile Justice Information Portfolio - Committee on the Rights of the Child - 3. State Party Reports: Burkino Faso". www.unicef-irc.org. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
50. "Minimum Ages of Criminal Responsibility in Africa". Child Rights International Network . Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
51. Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46, s. 13; may receive reduced sentencing under the Youth Criminal Justice Act until age 18.
52. "EL NUEVO SISTEMA DE JUSTICIA PENAL PARA ADOLESCENTES" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
53. "Ministro de Justicia descarta rebaja en edad de responsabilidad penal adolescente". Emol. 28 March 2012. Archived from the original on 14 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
54. "China's amended law lowering criminal liability age to 12 takes effect". 1 March 2021. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
55. Section 3 of the Juvenile Offenders Ordinance 2003 (Chapter 226, Laws of Hong Kong)
56. Jastreblansky, Maia (22 April 2009). "La mayoría de los países de América latina ya tiene un régimen penal juvenil". La Nación. Archived from the original on 31 October 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
57. "Zakon o sudovima za mladež" . Retrieved 19 June 2022.
58. "Cuba - Factsheets - Youthpolicy.org". youthpolicy.org. Archived from the original on 7 June 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
59. "Klaus podpisem stvrdil trestní odpovědnost i legální sex od 15 let". iDNES.cz. 12 August 2009. Archived from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
60. Faroese Criminal Code Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2020), § 15
61. "At what age?... ...are school-children employed, married and taken to court?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 December 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
62. "Adolescentes infractores, en la mira de Código Penal". El Telegrafo, telegrafo, diario, Ecuador, noticias, noticias de Ecuador, decano de la prensa nacional. Archived from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
63. Penal Code Archived 19 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine 3:1 § (39/1889, as changed by 515/2003). Retrieved 31 October 2007.
64. "Juvenile justice in Georgia". Archived from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
65. "Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch, StGB)". Archived from the original on 26 April 2001. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
66. "Justice ministry rejects UNICEF criticism of new criminal code provisions on youthful offenders". Politics.hu. Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
67. Pramesti, Tri Jata Ayu (25 August 2014). "Hal-Hal Penting yang Diatur dalam UU Sistem Peradilan Pidana Anak". Hukumonline. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
68. "Iran Human Rights Documentation Center – Criminal Responsibility of Children in the Islamic Republic of Iran's New Penal Code". Archived from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
69. "Iran urged to increase age of criminal responsibility for children". 17 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
70. "Children and the criminal justice system". Archived from the original on 14 February 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
71. "Situation analysis of juvenile justice system in Jordan". www.unicef.org. 20 December 2018. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
72. Penal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan Archived 22 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine (2014), Art. 15
73. "Kosovo Factsheet". youthpolicy.org. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
74. CRIMINAL CODE OF THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC Archived 22 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine (2006), Art. 18
75. "Juvenile Justice Information Portfolio - Committee on the Rights of the Child - 3. State Party Reports: Lebanon". www.unicef-irc.org. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
76. Penal Code of Libya Archived 22 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine (2014), Art. 80/81
77. "Luxembourg Factsheet". youthpolicy.org. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
78. "UNICEF Malaysia – Child Protection – Justice for Children". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
79. "Minimum Ages of Criminal Responsibility in Asia". Child Rights International Network . Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
80. "Juvenile Justice Information Portfolio - Committee on the Rights of the Child - 3. State Party Reports: Maldives". www.unicef-irc.org. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
81. "Decreto por el que se expide la Ley Nacional del Sistema Integral de Justicia Penal para Adolescentes (art. 5)". Diario Oficial de la Federación. Archived from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
82. "Criminal Code of Mongolia" (PDF). unodc.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
83. "Jeugdstrafrecht".
84. "Sections 21–22, Crimes Act 1961 No 43". Parliamentary Counsel Office (New Zealand). Archived from the original on 23 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
85. "Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989". Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
86. "Legal Rights". Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
87. Penal Code Archived 3 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Almindelig borgerlig Straffelov (Straffeloven) § 46 (changed of law 12 June 1987 nr. 51). Retrieved 19/7 – 2007.
88. ""Making Their Own Rules" Police Beatings, Rape, and Torture of Children in Papua New Guinea". Archived from the original on 19 October 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
89. "Los Sistemas de Justicia Penal Juvenil en América Latina Análisis Comparado" [Juvenile Criminal Justice Systems in Latin America Comparative Analysis](PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2013. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
90. "RA9344: Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006". Chan Robles Law Library. 28 April 2006. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
91. "PNoy signs law retaining minimum age of criminal liability". Yahoo News. 8 October 2013. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
92. "En Banc Supreme Court resolution on Proposed Rule on Juveniles in Conflict With the Law". Chan Robles Law Library. 28 February 2002. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2011. (effective 15 April 2002)
93. "House OKs bill lowering criminal responsibility to 12 on final reading". The Philippine Star. 28 January 2019. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
94. "The decade in review: Child rights advocates present 'NGO Alternative Report' on status of children's rights in PH". ChildFund International. 26 November 2020. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021– via reliefweb.int.
95. "Article 10 of Polish Penal Code of 1997" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
96. "Przepisy ogólne". Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
97. Ana Cristina Pereira (14 June 2012). "Responsabilidade criminal deve passar dos 16 para os 18 anos de idade". PÚBLICO. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
98. "СТ 20 УК РФ. Статья 20. Возраст, с которого наступает уголовная ответственность". Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
99. Sanmarinese Penal Code Archived 28 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2019), Art. 10 par. 1
100. Sanmarinese Penal Code Archived 28 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2019), Art. 10 par. 2, 3
101. "Belgrade shooting: Teen made 'kill list' for Serbia school attack". BBC News. 3 May 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
102. Penal Code ( Cap. 224,2008 Rev. Ed. ), section 82
103. "Juvenile Crimes in Singapore: Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child". irblaw.com.sg. 8 February 2020.
104. "Parliament adopts Child Justice Amendment Bill" (Press release). Cape Town: Parliament of South Africa. 14 November 2018. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
105. Child Justice Amendment Act, 2019 (PDF) (Act 28). Parliament of South Africa. 4 June 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
106. Spanish Penal Code Archived 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2019), Art. 19
107. Spanish Regulation Law on the Penal Responsibility of Minors Archived 23 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2012), Art. 1 par. 1
108. Spanish Penal Code Archived 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2019), Art. 69
109. "Sudan: New Law Amending Penal Code Takes Effect". Library of Congress . Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
110. Riksdagsförvaltningen (17 November 2021). "Slopad straffrabatt för unga myndiga vid allvarlig brottslighet Justitieutskottets Betänkande 2021/22:JuU5 - Riksdagen". www.riksdagen.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 18 February 2023.
111. Article 18, "Criminal Code of the Republic of China". Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China (Taiwan). Retrieved 31 August 2023.
112. "Juvenile Justice Act". Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China (Taiwan). Retrieved 31 August 2023.
113. CRIMINAL CODE OF THE REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN Archived 22 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine (2006), Art. 23
114. "Mevzuat Bilgi Sistemi". www.mevzuat.gov.tr.
115. The Children and Young Persons Act 1933 (23 & 24 Geo.5 c.12), section 50; as amended by The Children and Young Persons Act 1963 (c.37), section 16(1) Archived 3 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
116. "Age of criminal responsibility". Archived from the original on 4 June 2009. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
117. "Report on the Draft Justice (NI) Bill of the Northern Ireland Assembly's official website". niassembly.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
118. Interstate Commission for Juveniles (15 March 2023). "Age Matrix". Interstate Compact for Juveniles . Retrieved 13 August 2023.
119. "Age Boundaries in Juvenile Justice Systems". National Governors Association. 12 August 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
120. Juvenile Justice GPS (2016). "Jurisdictional boundaries". Juvenile Justice Geography, Policy, Practice, Statistics. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
121. "Uruguayans reject constitutional reform on criminal responsibility". GlobalPost. 27 October 2014. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2018.

Further reading

• Maher, Gerry. Age and Criminal Responsibility. 2005 Vol 2. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law. 493 Wayback Machine
• CRC Country Reports (1992–1996); Juvenile Justice and Juvenile Delinquency in Central and Eastern Europe, 1995; United Nations, Implementation of UN Mandates on Juvenile Justice in ESCAP, 1994; Geert Cappelaere, Children's Rights Centre, University of Gent, Belgium.