Youth suffrage

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Youth suffrage is the right of youth to vote and forms part of the broader universal suffrage and youth rights movements. Most democracies have lowered the voting age to between 16 and 18, while some advocates for children's suffrage hope to remove age restrictions entirely. [1]

Contents

Discussion

Suffrage

According to advocates, the "one man, one vote" democratic ideal supports giving voting rights to as many people as possible in order for the wisdom of a more representative electorate to create better outcomes for society. Advocates suggest that setting a voting age at or below 16, would accomplish that goal, while also creating a more ethical democracy for those who believe that those most impacted by government decisions (those with the longest life expectancy [2] ) are given at least an equal say in decision-making.

Presumptive inclusion

The idea of presumptive inclusion holds that individuals should be given the right to vote by default and only removed if the government can decisively prove why someone shouldn't have that right. [3] [4] [5] Erring on the side of over-inclusion also checks the temptations of those with power (or simply status quo bias) to exclude capable voters. The first reason for exclusion that is seen as legitimate by some democratic theorists is competence, while the second is connection to the community. Age-related debates fall under the question of competence. [3]

Sufficient literacy, comprehension and intelligence

Many countries don't require literacy in order to vote, validating the idea that attaining a certain level of education is not needed to understand how to cast a vote according to one's interest or beliefs. In the 1965 U.S. Voting Rights Act for example, it was determined that a 6th grade education (typically achieved by age 12-13) provided "sufficient literacy, comprehension and intelligence to vote in any election." [6] If kids were given the same tests that adults whose brains are atypical must pass in order to vote, then many pre-adolescents would qualify as competent [3] (see also: ableism, neurodiversity, and Suffrage for Americans with disabilities). Additionally, ballots cast by someone (ie kids) with little understanding might simply randomly allocate votes and have no impact on the outcome of the election. [3]

Further, law professor Vivian Hamilton argues that in light of findings from research in developmental psychology and cognitive and social neuroscience, governments can "no longer justify the electoral exclusion of mid-adolescents by claiming that they lack the relevant competencies." [3]

John Wall argues that precisely because children and youth think differently than adults, that they would make unique contributions to decisions around issues with their fresh perspectives and useful abilities such as compassion for suffering and even great wisdom. [7]

Political knowledge

As for knowledge around the political decisions at the ballot box, Daniel Hart argues that 16-year-olds have proved just as capable of evaluating the candidates that align with their values and interests as 18 and 19-year-olds (though not as much knowledge as 30 year-olds). [8]

Others dispute whether not having the average political knowledge of an 18 year-old is a good reason for exclusion, given the double-standard of how adults don't have to prove some level of political knowledge before voting. [3] Additionally, not every voter is expected to know about every issue, but the wisdom of the crowd from different expertise and life experiences is what contributes to a healthy and informed citizenry, including perspectives that are unique to those under 18. [3] Most people use heuristics (political party, endorsements, etc.) to decide who to vote for, there's evidence that heuristics can be a more effective approach in voting rationally than a detailed issue-by-issue analysis of each candidate in each race. [3] Additionally, while prior knowledge and experience can provide greater understanding, it can also lead to less informed decision-making by closing an otherwise open mind. [3]

Some scholars advocating for a further reduced voting age, promote the idea that it should be always be optional below a certain age, so that those who feel they don't know enough yet aren't forced to participate until they want to. [9]

Disputes over youth suffrage have historically been linked to partisan efforts to restrict voting. The 1971 passage of the Twenty-Sixth Amendment to the US. Constitution, which gave young people the vote at age eighteen, spurred conflicts with regard to where students should vote. Those who opposed allowing students to vote in their college towns argued that students should be forced to vote where their parents lived, and sometimes these efforts were specifically aimed at Black students. [10]

Youth activism

Youth and student activists have a long history of learning about and advocating for more inclusive futures, so young advocates have begun asking for the ability to vote on some or all issues. [11] [12]

Independence from peers and parents

Parents have not been shown to have influence over youth voting behavior in studies of countries where the vote has been given to 16-year-olds, just as this fear didn't manifest when women were given the right to vote. [8] [13] Likewise, peer pressure has been shown to have no greater influence on teens than on adults when it comes to voting. [14]

John Wall argues that even if children chose to vote exactly as either their parents or their peers, it would not justify their disenfranchisement just as such behavior would not disqualify adults. [7]

Maturity

While teenagers can be more impulsive in certain 'hot' contexts until their early 20's, [15] in a 'cool contexts,' such as in a voting booth, there is no significant difference in a 16-year-old's ability to make careful, rational decisions like any other voter. [16] Others contend that governments shouldn't withhold rights that young children can perform, like voting, just because they haven't received other rights that they can't perform, like driving. [17] A lot of development in that analytical part of the brain takes place between 14 and 16, which is why 16 year-olds are often given more societal privileges like being able to work jobs or drive a car that are more difficult than voting. [18] Under Roman law, the age minimum for full citizenship was 14 (for males), while in much of 9th-11th century France, Germany and Northern Europe the age of adulthood (largely for fighting in wars) was 15. [3]

Legitimacy and trust

Scholars have found no negative effects from lowering the voting age in countries around the world, and in many places, positive ones like increased trust in institutions and a more favorable view of the lower voting age over time. [19] A study of five countries in Latin America, for example, where the voting age was lowered to 16 showed a significant association with trust in government and a marginal association with satisfaction. [20] In addition to taxation without representation, governments derive their just authority from the consent of the governed. To be legitimate, those who govern and those who legislate, the argument goes, must be elected by the people, not a special subset of the people.

Voting skills and habits

Scholars have found no negative effects from lowering the voting age below 18 in countries around the world, and in many places, positive ones like increased turnout and engagement. [19] Youth enfranchisement at a more stable life stage (before 18) has been shown to develop more robust and long-lasting voting habits, [21] leading to greater rates (~25% higher, according to one study) of voting in the future. [6] Studies in Norway, [22] Austria [23] and Scotland [24] [25] found that allowing 16-year-olds to vote led those voters to have "substantially higher levels of engagement with representative democracy (through voting) as well as other forms of political participation". A study of preregistration (registering individuals before they are eligible to vote) in the U.S. found that it was linked to higher youth turnout, and that politicians became more responsive to issues that the young have strong preferences on, such as higher education spending. [26] While some South American countries (Argentina, Brazil and Ecuador) lower their voting age to 16, they also have compulsory voting starting at 18, making it difficult to study turnout effects from the lower voting age. Indonesia provides a potential case-study for non-western democracies, though they have only lowered their voting age to 17. [27] Educating children for and about democracy would likely be longer lasting if the voting age were lowered or eliminated, [28] while just how skilled kids could become over the course of a few elections is unknowable since it has yet to be tried below the age of 16. [7]

Proposed minimum voting ages

16

Currently the lowest national voting age around the world, there seems to be a consensus in studies of elections that voters at 16 have proven to be substantially the same as voters at 18. [29] [30] The majority of campaigns to lower the voting age worldwide (as of January 2023) seek a voting age of 16, with perhaps the most notable example being the European Union's endorsement that its members lower their voting ages to 16. [31] In countries with both compulsory voting and a voting age at 16 (Argentina, Brazil and Ecuador), the penalties for not voting start at 18.

15

Avi Hein and Ta-Nehisi Coates called for lowering the voting age to 15. [32] [33] (note: the United Nations defines "youth" as being from ages 15 to 24.) [34]

6

Politics professor David Runciman argues for lowering the voting age to 6, given that at that age children tend to be in school and have enough ability to read and fill out a multiple-choice ballot. [35] [36]

5

Youth councils (or children's parliaments) often include children starting at age 5, which John Wall submits as evidence of their readiness for other civic roles such as voting (note: he advocates eliminating age requirements altogether). [31]

4

Democratic schools practice and support universal suffrage in school, which allows a vote to every member of the school including students and staff. Schools hold that this feature is essential for students to be ready to move into society at large. The Sudbury Valley School, for example, allows all children ages 4 and up an equal say in its operation. [37] [38]

0 (Eliminate age requirements)

Some advocate for eliminating age as a factor altogether in enfranchisement noting that in practice most very young children won't choose to vote, but that they should have the right to do so when they feel ready, [17] with some supporting a proxy vote to be awarded to their parents until the child wants to vote. [31] Others cite how literacy tests were banned for adults, and therefore should be done away with for young kids too by removing the voting age. [39] [40]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</span> 1920 amendment mandating womens suffrage

The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the United States and its states from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex, in effect recognizing the right of women to vote. The amendment was the culmination of a decades-long movement for women's suffrage in the United States, at both the state and national levels, and was part of the worldwide movement towards women's suffrage and part of the wider women's rights movement. The first women's suffrage amendment was introduced in Congress in 1878. However, a suffrage amendment did not pass the House of Representatives until May 21, 1919, which was quickly followed by the Senate, on June 4, 1919. It was then submitted to the states for ratification, achieving the requisite 36 ratifications to secure adoption, and thereby went into effect, on August 18, 1920. The Nineteenth Amendment's adoption was certified on August 26, 1920.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution</span> 1971 amendment granting suffrage to 18-year-old citizens

The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution establishes a nationally standardized minimum age of 18 for participation in state and federal elections. It was proposed by Congress on March 23, 1971, and three-fourths of the states ratified it by July 1, 1971.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suffrage</span> Right to vote in public and political elections

Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums. In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to vote is called active suffrage, as distinct from passive suffrage, which is the right to stand for election. The combination of active and passive suffrage is sometimes called full suffrage.

Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Several instances occurred in recent centuries where women were selectively given, then stripped of, the right to vote. In Sweden, conditional women's suffrage was in effect during the Age of Liberty (1718–1772), as well as in Revolutionary and early-independence New Jersey (1776–1807) in the US.

Universal suffrage or universal franchise ensures the right to vote for as many people bound by a government's laws as possible, as supported by the "one person, one vote" principle. For many, the term universal suffrage assumes the exclusion of the young and non-citizens. At the same time, some insist that more inclusion is needed before suffrage can be truly universal. Democratic theorists, especially those hoping to achieve more universal suffrage, support presumptive inclusion, where the legal system would protect the voting rights of all subjects unless the government can clearly prove that disenfranchisement is necessary. Universal full suffrage includes both the right to vote, also called active suffrage, and the right to be elected, also called passive suffrage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compulsory voting</span> Practice of requiring all eligible citizens to register and vote in elections

Compulsory voting, also called universal civic duty voting or mandatory voting, is the requirement that registered voters participate in an election. As of January 2023, 21 countries have compulsory voting laws. Law enforcement in those countries varies considerably and the penalty for not casting a ballot without a proper justification ranges from severe to non-existent.

The Reform Acts are legislation enacted in the United Kingdom in the 19th and 20th century to enfranchise new groups of voters and to redistribute seats in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. When short titles were introduced for these acts, they were usually Representation of the People Act.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter turnout</span> Percentage of a countrys eligible voters who actually vote within elections

In political science, voter turnout is the participation rate of a given election. This is typically either the percentage of registered voters, eligible voters, or all voting-age people. According to Stanford University political scientists Adam Bonica and Michael McFaul, there is a consensus among political scientists that "democracies perform better when more people vote."

A legal voting age is the minimum age that a person is allowed to vote in a democratic process. For general elections around the world, the right to vote is restricted to adults, and most nations use 18 as their voting age, but for other countries voting age ranges between 16 and 21. Voting age may therefore coincide with a country's age of majority, but in many cases the two are not tied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voting rights in the United States</span>

Voting rights, specifically enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, have been a moral and political issue throughout United States history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter suppression</span> Strategy designed to restrict specific groups of people from voting

Voter suppression are tactics used to discourage or prevent specific groups of people from voting or registering to vote. It is distinguished from political campaigning in that campaigning attempts to change likely voting behavior by changing the opinions of potential voters through persuasion and organization, activating otherwise inactive voters, or registering new supporters. Voter suppression, instead, attempts to gain an advantage by reducing the turnout of certain voters. Suppression is an anti-democratic tactic associated with authoritarianism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Youth vote in the United States</span>

The youth vote in the United States is the cohort of 18–24 year-olds as a voting demographic, though some scholars define youth voting as voters under 30. Many policy areas specifically affect the youth of the United States, such as education issues and the juvenile justice system; however, young people also care about issues that affect the population as a whole, such as national debt and war.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Representation of the People Act 1969</span> United Kingdom law reforming the electoral system

The Representation of the People Act 1969 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that lowered the voting age to 18 years. This statute is sometimes called the Sixth Reform Act.

The voting rights of Indigenous Australians became an issue from the mid-19th century, when responsible government was being granted to Britain's Australian colonies, and suffrage qualifications were being debated. The resolution of universal rights progressed into the mid-20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter turnout in United States presidential elections</span> Aspect of election history

Voter turnout in US elections is the total number of votes cast by the voting age population (VAP), or more recently, the voting eligible population (VEP), divided by the entire voting eligible population. It is usually displayed as a percentage, showing which percentage of eligible voters actually voted.

Demeny voting is a type of proxy voting where the provision of a political voice for children by allowing parents or guardians to vote on their behalf. The term is named after demographer Paul Demeny, though the concept predates him. It is often proposed as a measure to ensure the (indirect) representation of children who are considered too young to vote. Under a Demeny voting system, parents would cast a proxy vote for their child, possibly allowing for a split weighted vote if the parents' political views differ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Australia</span>

Women's suffrage in Australia was one of the early achievements of Australian democracy. Following the progressive establishment of male suffrage in the Australian colonies from the 1840s to the 1890s, an organised push for women's enfranchisement gathered momentum from the 1880s, and began to be legislated from the 1890s. South Australian women achieved the right to vote and to stand for office in 1895, following the world first Constitutional Amendment Act 1894 which gained royal assent the following year. This preceded even universal male suffrage in Tasmania. Western Australia granted women the right to vote from 1899, although with racial restrictions. In 1902, the newly established Australian Parliament passed the Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902, which gave women equal voting rights to men and the right to stand for federal parliament. By 1908, the remaining Australian states had legislated for women's suffrage for state elections. Grace Benny was elected as the first female local government councillor in 1919, Edith Cowan the first state Parliamentarian in 1921, Dorothy Tangney the first Senator and Enid Lyons the first Member of the House of Representatives in 1943.

Suffrage in Australia is the voting rights in the Commonwealth of Australia, its six component states and territories, and local governments. The colonies of Australia began to grant universal male suffrage from 1856, with women's suffrage on equal terms following between the 1890s and 1900s. Some jurisdictions introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885, and by 1902 most Australian residents who were not of European descent were explicitly or effectively excluded from voting and standing for office, including at the Federal level. Such restrictions had been removed by 1966. Today, the right to vote at all levels of government is held by citizens of Australia over the age of 18 years, excluding some prisoners and people "of unsound mind".

The Cost of Voting Index measures and ranks how difficult it is to vote in each state in the United States, focusing on voter registration and voting rules. The index also has rankings for every two years since 1996. The states ranked as being easier to vote also tend to have higher voter turnout.

Presumptive inclusion is the idea that something should first be presumed to be included, and only omitted after the fact if justified. It has common uses in democracy and medicine.

References

  1. ↑ Pearse, Harry (28 December 2022). "Why aren't children allowed to vote? An expert debunks the arguments against". The Conversation. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
  2. ↑ "World Happiness Report: living long and living well". LSE Business Review. 2021-03-19. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Hamilton, Vivian E. (2012). "Democratic Inclusion, Cognitive Development, and the Age of Electoral Majority". Brooklyn Law Review. Rochester, NY. SSRN   2086875.
  4. ↑ Wiland, Eric (2018), "Should Children Have the Right to Vote?", The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophy and Public Policy, Cham: Springer International Publishing, p. 223, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93907-0_17, ISBN   978-3-319-93906-3 , retrieved 2023-02-19
  5. ↑ Olsson, Stefan (2008). "Children's Suffrage: A Critique of the Importance of Voters' Knowledge for the Well-Being of Democracy". The International Journal of Children's Rights. 16 (1): 56. doi:10.1163/092755608x267120. ISSN   0927-5568.
  6. 1 2 Rusch, Elizabeth (2020). You call this democracy? : how to fix our government and deliver power to the people. Boston. ISBN   978-0-358-17692-3. OCLC   1124772479.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. 1 2 3 Wall, John (2022). "Chapter 2". Give Children the Vote: On Democratizing Democracy. London, UK. ISBN   978-1-350-19630-8. OCLC   1262678642.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  8. 1 2 "Daniel Hart: Time for American Teens Under 18 to Hit the Polls". AAPSS. 2011-02-23. Retrieved 2022-12-29.
  9. ↑ Tremmel, J., Wilhelm, J. (2015). Democracy or Epistocracy? Age as a Criterion of Voter Eligibility. In: Tremmel, J., Mason, A., Godli, P., Dimitrijoski, I. (eds) Youth Quotas and other Efficient Forms of Youth Participation in Ageing Societies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13431-4_9
  10. ↑ Cain, Timothy R. (August 2024). ""Isn't It Terrible That All These Students Are Voting?" Student Suffrage in College Towns". History of Education Quarterly. 64 (3): 319–345. doi:10.1017/heq.2024.13.
  11. ↑ "Learning by Voting: Students Want the Right to Make a Difference in Real Life - MindShift". KQED. 30 October 2020. Retrieved 2023-01-31.
  12. ↑ Sherrod, Lonnie R (2006). Youth activism: an international encyclopedia (Volume 2 ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN   9780313328114.
  13. ↑ Douglas, Joshua A. (2017-01-01). "In Defense of Lowering the Voting Age". Rochester, NY. SSRN   2903669.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  14. ↑ Sinclair, Betsy (2012). The social citizen : peer networks and political behavior. Chicago. ISBN   978-0-226-92281-2. OCLC   783150326.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ↑ 'We can have sex, so why can't we vote?', The Guardian, Feb. 28, 2006.
  16. ↑ Douglas, Joshua A. (2017-01-01). "In Defense of Lowering the Voting Age". Rochester, NY. SSRN   2903669.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  17. 1 2 Pearse, Harry (28 December 2022). "Why aren't children allowed to vote? An expert debunks the arguments against". The Conversation. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
  18. ↑ Begley, Patrick (2015-03-27). "Hot and cold thinking: why 16-year-olds are smart enough to vote, but not drink". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
  19. 1 2 Eichhorn, Jan (14 July 2021). "Lowering the Voting Age to 16 in Practice: Processes and Outcomes Compared". Parliamentary Affairs. 74 (3): 507–521. doi: 10.1093/pa/gsab019 . hdl: 11250/2767873 .
  20. ↑ Sanhueza Petrarca, Constanza (2020), Eichhorn, Jan; Bergh, Johannes (eds.), "Does Voting at a Younger Age Have an Effect on Satisfaction with Democracy and Political Trust? Evidence from Latin America", Lowering the Voting Age to 16: Learning from Real Experiences Worldwide, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 103–119, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-32541-1_6, ISBN   978-3-030-32541-1, S2CID   214234702 , retrieved 2023-01-20
  21. ↑ Douglas, Joshua A. (2017-01-01). "In Defense of Lowering the Voting Age". Rochester, NY. SSRN   2903669.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  22. ↑ Top Ten Reasons to Lower the Voting Age, National Youth Rights Association.
  23. ↑ Zeglovits, Eva; Aichholzer, Julian (2014-07-03). "Are People More Inclined to Vote at 16 than at 18? Evidence for the First-Time Voting Boost Among 16- to 25-Year-Olds in Austria". Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties. 24 (3): 351–361. doi:10.1080/17457289.2013.872652. ISSN   1745-7289. PMC   4864896 . PMID   27226806.
  24. ↑ Eichhorn, Jan (2018-04-01). "Votes At 16: New Insights from Scotland on Enfranchisement" (PDF). Parliamentary Affairs. 71 (2): 365–391. doi:10.1093/pa/gsx037. hdl: 20.500.11820/5eabbc6c-27d3-43ba-a068-47469f03143b . ISSN   0031-2290.
  25. ↑ Eichhorn, Jan (2018-01-02). "Beyond anecdotes on lowering the voting age: New evidence from Scotland". EUROPP. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  26. ↑ Bertocchi, Graziella; Dimico, Arcangelo; Lancia, Francesco; Russo, Alessia (2020). "Youth Enfranchisement, Political Responsiveness, and Education Expenditure: Evidence from the US". American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 12 (3): 76–106. doi: 10.1257/pol.20180203 . hdl: 10278/3751638 . ISSN   1945-7731. OCLC   8671636869.
  27. ↑ Mujani, Saiful; Liddle, R. William; Ambardi, Kuskridho (2018). Voting behavior in Indonesia since democratization : critical democrats. Cambridge. doi:10.1017/9781108377836. ISBN   978-1-108-38988-4. OCLC   1026492463.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ↑ Hyde, Martin (2001). Democracy education and the Canadian voting age (Thesis). University of British Columbia.
  29. ↑ Wagner, Markus; Johann, David; Kritzinger, Sylvia (2012). "Voting at 16: Turnout and the quality of vote choice". Electoral Studies. 31 (2): 372–383. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2012.01.007. PMC   4020373 . PMID   24850994.
  30. ↑ Stiers, Dieter; Hooghe, Marc; Goubin, Silke (2020-02-01). "Are 16-year-olds able to cast a congruent vote? Evidence from a "voting at 16" initiative in the city of Ghent (Belgium)". Electoral Studies. 63: 102107. doi: 10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102107 . ISSN   0261-3794.
  31. 1 2 3 Wall, John (2022). "Ch. 1". Give Children the Vote: On Democratizing Democracy. London, UK. ISBN   978-1-350-19630-8. OCLC   1262678642.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  32. ↑ "Avi Hein – 20th Anniversary Reflection – NYRA". 12 December 2018. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
  33. ↑ Coates, Ta-Nehisi (2011-01-07). "Kids Are Citizens, Let Them Vote". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
  34. ↑ "Frequently asked questions | United Nations For Youth". www.un.org. Retrieved 2023-02-01.
  35. ↑ Weaver, Matthew (2018-12-06). "Lower voting age to six to tackle bias against young, says academic". the Guardian. Retrieved 2023-01-17.
  36. ↑ Runciman, David (2021-11-16). "Votes for children! Why we should lower the voting age to six". the Guardian. Retrieved 2023-01-17.
  37. ↑ The Sudbury Valley School Experience. The Sudbury Valley School. 1992. ISBN   978-1-888947-01-4.
  38. ↑ Greenberg, D. (1987) The Sudbury Valley School Experience "Back to Basics – Political basics." Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 21 February 2010.
  39. ↑ "Fotenos '99 Pursues Child Suffrage". 2001-04-21. Archived from the original on 2001-04-21. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  40. ↑ Wallace, Vita (1992-04-01). "Immodest Proposals II: Give Children The Vote". Thinking: The Journal of Philosophy for Children. 10 (1): 46–47. doi:10.5840/thinking199210126.

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