Are surrogacy agreements enforceable, void, or prohibited? Does it make a difference whether the gestational carrier is paid (commercial) or simply reimbursed for expenses (altruistic)?
What, if any, difference does it make whether the surrogacy is traditional or gestational surrogacy?
Is there an alternative to post-birth adoption for the recognition of the intended parents as the legal parents, either before or after the birth?
Laws differ widely from one jurisdiction to another. Of the countries which allow surrogacy, many have residency or citizenship requirements for the intended parent(s) and/or the surrogate. Countries without such requirements often attract persons from abroad, being destinations for fertility tourism. In some countries, such as the United States, Canada or Australia, laws vary by state/territory.
Prohibition of commercial surrogacy
Commercial surrogacy, that is, surrogacy where the individual is paid to carry the baby or surrender it to other person(s) is illegal in the European Union, as Article 3 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union states that "In the fields of medicine and biology, the following must be respected in particular: [..] (c) the prohibition on making the human body and its parts as such a source of financial gain"[1]
The Oviedo Convention, ratified by 30 countries, also states at Article 21 "Prohibition of financial gain" that: "The human body and its parts shall not, as such, give rise to financial gain."[2]
Australia
In Australia, all jurisdictions allow altruistic surrogacy; with commercial surrogacy being a criminal offense. In New South Wales, Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory it is an offence to enter into international commercial surrogacy[3] arrangements with potential penalties extending to imprisonment for up to one year in Australian Capital Territory, up to two years imprisonment in New South Wales and up to three years imprisonment in Queensland.
In 2004, the Australian Capital Territory made only altruistic surrogacy legal.[4]
In 2006, Australian senator Stephen Conroy and his wife Paula Benson announced that they had arranged for a child to be born through egg donation and gestational surrogacy. Unusually, Conroy was put on the birth certificate as the father of the child. Previously, couples who used to make surrogacy arrangements in Australia had to adopt the child after it was registered as born to the natural mother; rather than being recognized as birth parents, however now that surrogacy is more regular practice for childless parents; most states have switched to such arrangements to give the intended parents proper rights.[5][6] After the announcement, Victoria passed the Assisted Reproductive Treatment Act 2008, effective since 1 January 2010 to make only altruistic surrogacy legal.[7]
In 2009, Western Australia[8] passed a law to allow only altruistic surrogacy for couples of the opposite-sex only, and to prohibit it for single people and same-sex couples. In 2010, Queensland made only altruistic surrogacy legal,[9] as did New South Wales,[10] and Tasmania did the same in 2013 with the Surrogacy Act No 34 and the Surrogacy (Consequential Amendments) Act No 31[11][12][13][14]
In 2017, South Australia passed a bill to allow gay couples equal access to both surrogacy and IVF. The bill received royal assent on 15 March 2017 and went into effect on 21 March 2017.[15][16][17][18][19]
In 2022, The Northern Territory passed legislation permitting altruistic surrogacy.[20]
A Medicare rebate is not available for IVF treatment for surrogacy.
Brazil
Commercial Surrogacy is banned by Brazilian law, but altruistic surrogacy is allowed. Nevertheless, the practice is performed illegally throughout the country.[21]
The Assisted Human Reproduction Act (AHRC) permits only altruistic surrogacy: gestational carriers may be reimbursed for approved expenses but payment of any other consideration or fee is illegal.[22]
People's Republic of China
Surrogacy is forbidden by Regulation of human assisted reproductive technology law in the People's Republic of China. The Ministry of Health has established "departmental rules" which prohibit medical professionals from performing surrogacy procedures, with violations punished by fines (but not criminal liabilities). In practice, surrogacy arrangements are common in Mainland China with an underground market for commercial surrogacy estimated to encompass between 400 and 500 agencies in 2012.[23]
Colombia
There are no clear rules in Colombia as of today regarding surrogacy and a loophole persists. The current laws applied are those from a natural childbirth. This means the child must be registered with the surnames of the gestational carrier and her partner or spouse, if she has any. Only through a challenging paternity lawsuit before a judge may the commissioning parents be recognized as legal parents, and it may include genetic tests.[24]
In July 2016, a right wing political party, Democratic Center, has introduced for the second time a bill in order to determine the concept of surrogacy and to forbid any types of it.[25][26]
Cuba
Only altruistic surrogacy is allowed after referendum over a new family law passed and is available since September 2022.[27]
Czech Republic
Surrogacy is not legally regulated in the Czech Republic and so is generally considered legal.[28] The only mention of the phrase "surrogate motherhood" can be found in § 804 of the law n. 89/2012, where the law designates an exception to the ban of adoption by siblings for siblings carried by a surrogate mother.[29]
Finland
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) have been illegal since 2007.[citation needed] Commercial surrogacy arrangements were illegal even before 2007.
France
In France, since 1994, any surrogacy arrangement that is commercial or altruistic, is illegal or unlawful and is not sanctioned by the law (art 16-7 of the Code Civil).[30] The French Court of Cassation already took this point of view in 1991. It held that if any couple makes an agreement or arranges with another person that she is to bear the husband's child and surrender it on birth to the couple, and that she is choosing that she will not keep the child, the couple making such an agreement or arrangement is not allowed to adopt the child. In its judgement the court held that such an agreement is illegal on the basis of articles 6, 353 and 1128 of the Code Civil.[31]
Germany
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal. The German Free Democratic Party wants to allow altruistic surrogacy.[32] According to the German Civil Code, the legal mother is always the woman who gave birth to the child.[33]
Georgia
Surrogacy is legally permitted in Georgia, making it one of the few countries in the region where intended parents can engage in both altruistic and commercial surrogacy agreements. The legislation, established in the early 1990s, explicitly allows surrogacy for both domestic and international intended parents.[34]
Since 2022, Georgia has absorbed some of the clients from Ukraine, which was the major surrogacy hub in Europe prior to the Russian invasion.[35] Many Ukrainian clinics reopened in Georgia, while surrogates moved there to avoid conflict and due to the favorable legislation and costs.[36]
In 2023, the Georgian government announced some plans to reconsider its stance regarding commercial surrogacy for foreign citizens, however no further action was taken,[37] and all forms of surrogacy remain fully legal, including programs involving egg donor programs, shipped embryos and self-cycles.[38]
Under Georgian law, surrogacy is available to couples that are married or in the domestic relationship for at least one year.[34] Additionally, a surrogate cannot be an egg donor at the same time; however, donor materials can still be used in the surrogacy programs.
The legislation stipulates that surrogates have no parental rights over the child born through surrogacy. Once the child is born, the intended parents are automatically recognized as the legal parents, and the surrogate has no claims to parental rights or responsibilities.[39]
Greece
Law 3305–2005 ("Enforcement of Medically Assisted Reproduction") Surrogacy in Greece is fully legal and is only one of a handful of countries in the world to give legal protection to intended parents. Intended parents must meet certain qualifications, and will go before a family judge before starting their journey. As long as they meet the qualifications, the court appearance is procedural and will be granted their application. At present, intended parents must be in a heterosexual partnership or be a single female. Females must be able to prove there is a medical indication they cannot carry and be no older than 50 at the time of the contract. As in all jurisdictions, surrogates must pass medical and psychological tests so they can prove to the court that they are medically and mentally fit. What is unique about Greece is that it is the only country in Europe, and one of only countries in the world where the surrogate then has no rights over the child. The intended parents become the legal parents from conception and there is no mention of the surrogate mother anywhere on hospital or birth documents. The intended parent(s) are listed as the parents. This even applies if an egg or sperm donor is used by one of the partners. An added advantage for Europeans is that, due to the Schengen Treaty, they can freely travel home as soon as the baby is born and deal with citizenship issues at that time, as opposed to applying at their own embassy in Greece. The old regime (pursuant to art. 8 of Law 3089/2002), one of the prerequisites for granting the judicial permission for surrogacy was also the fact that the surrogate mother and the commissioning parents should be Greek citizens or permanent residents. However, the law has recently (in July 2014) changed and the new provisions of L. 4272/2014 foresee now that the surrogacy is allowed to applicants or surrogate mothers who have their permanent or temporary residence in Greece. With this new law Greece becomes the only EU country with a comprehensive framework to regulate, facilitate and enforce surrogacy, as according to the explanatory statement of the art. 17 of the L. 4272/2014: "The possibility is now extending also to applicants or surrogate mothers who have their permanent residence outside Greece".
Hong Kong (S.A.R.)
Commercial surrogacy is criminal under the Human Reproductive Technology Ordinance 2000. The law is phrased in a manner that no one can pay a surrogate, no surrogate can receive money, and no one can arrange a commercial surrogacy (the same applies to the supply of gametes), no matter within or outside Hong Kong. Normally only the gametes of the intended parents can be used.
In October 2010, Peter Lee, the eldest son and one of the presumed heirs of billionaire Lee Shau Kee obtained three sons through a gestational carrier, reportedly from California. Since the junior Lee is single, the news attracted criticism on both moral and legal grounds. A vicar general of the territory's Roman Catholic diocese was critical. In December the case was reportedly referred to police after questions were asked in Legco.[40] After a 10-month investigation,Department of Justice had been decided to end the probe as there was not enough evidence to show that a criminal offence had been committed in this case.[41]
Iceland
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal.[42]
As per the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, only a couple who has been married for 5 years can opt for surrogacy on medical grounds only. The law defines a couple as a married Indian “man and woman” and also prescribes an age-criteria with the woman being in the age of 23 years to 50 years and the man between 26 years to 55 years. The couple should not have a child of their own. Though the law allows single women to resort to surrogacy, she has to be a widow or a divorcee between the age of 35 and 45 years. Single men are not eligible. Starting 4 November 2015, commercial surrogacy for foreign intended parents is not legal in India. Those commissioned before this date are reviewed on case by case situation; however, no new surrogacies will be started.[43]
Before 2015, foreign commercial surrogacy was legal in India.[44] India was a destination for surrogacy-related fertility tourism because of the relatively low cost. Including the costs of flight tickets, medical procedures, and hotels, it was roughly a third of the price compared with going through the procedure in the UK.[45] In the case of Balaz v. Union of India the Supreme Court of India has given the verdict that the citizenship of the child born through this process will have the citizenship of its gestational carrier. Surrogacy was regulated by the Indian Council of Medical Research guidelines, 2005.
Ireland
There is no law in Ireland governing surrogacy.[46] In 2005 a Government-appointed Commission published a report on Assisted Human Reproduction, which made recommendations on the broader area of assisted human reproduction.[47] In response to Irish nationals engaging in surrogacy contracts in other nations, the Minister for Justice, Equality and Defence published guidelines for surrogacy on 21 February 2012.[48]
A Supreme Court ruling in May 2023 noted the lack of legislation around surrogacy in Ireland.[49]
Israel
In March 1996, the Israeli government legalized gestational surrogacy under the Embryo Carrying Agreements Law. This law made Israel the first country in the world to implement a form of state-controlled surrogacy in which each and every contract must be approved directly by the state.[50] A state-appointed committee permits surrogacy arrangements to be filed only by Israeli citizens who share the same religion.[51] The numerous restrictions on surrogacy under Israeli law have prompted some intended parents to turn to surrogates outside of the country.[52][53]
In February 2020, the Israeli Supreme Court ruled the restriction on same-sex couples from entering surrogacy agreements as discriminatory, thus giving the state one year to change the law.[54][55] In July 2021, the Supreme Court made a second ruling stating that legislation banning same-sex couples and single men from becoming parents via surrogacy would be null and void within six months.[53][56] In January 2022, Health MinisterNitzan Horowitz announced that surrogacy would be allowed for same-sex couples, transgender people, and single men starting on 11 January.[52][55]
Iran
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are legal and popular. Many couples from the Middle East do surrogacy in Iran for legal easiness.
The legalization of surrogacy in Iran is an interplay between religious acceptance, legal interpretation, and societal norms. In a country where religious adherence plays a significant role in governance and daily life, permitting surrogacy was no doubt the same.
Iran’s religious demographic is predominantly Shia Islam, with around 90-95% of its citizens practicing this sect of Islam. Initially, both Shia and Sunni religious scholars and authorities were aligned in the prohibition of third-party reproduction, including surrogacy. This was a stance rooted in traditional interpretations of Islamic law and ethics.[57] However, the landscape began to shift in 1999 when Ayaollah Ali Hussein Al Khamene’j, the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran issued a fatwa addressing surrogacy.[57]
The fatwa was a turning point, providing detailed guidance on the permissibility of assisted reproduction techniques, including surrogacy, within the framework of Shia Islam.[57] By issuing this fatwa, Ayatollah Khamene’j provided a sense of legitimacy and security for families considering or participating in surrogacy agreements.[57] The weight of his authority as the supreme leader lent considerable credibility to the practice, reassuring both individuals and the broader society.
Central to the acceptance of surrogacy in Iran was the principle of ijtihad, which emphasizes individual religious reasoning and interpretation.[58] While, not codified as law, ijtihad holds significant sway in Shia Islam and allows a degree of flexibility and adaption to modern circumstances.[58] In the case of surrogacy, Iranian citizens were able to exercise their right to ijtihad, engaging in personal religious reasoning that aligned with their beliefs and values.[58]
Italy
According to the Law Decree no. 40 approved on February 19, 2004, by the Italian Parliament, titled "Regulations concerning medically assisted procreation", any form of selling of either gametes or embryos, as well as surrogacy, is prohibited and punished with jail time lasting between three months and two years and with a fine ranging between 600,000 and one million euros (article 12, subsection 6).[59] This prohibition has been further underpinned by a sentence of the Italian Constitutional Court (i.e. sentence no. 272 of 2017), that stated that "the practice of surrogacy constitutes an unbearable attack on women's dignity and deeply undermines human relations".[60]
In 2023, Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni ordered municipalities to follow a December 2021 court decision to stop certifying foreign birth certificates of children born to Italian same-sex couples through use of a surrogate in another country.[63]
On October 16th 2024, the Italian Parliament passed a law pursuant to which Italian citizens can be prosecuted if they have children through surrogacy abroad.
Japan
In March 2008, the Science Council of Japan proposed a ban on surrogacy and said that doctors, agents and their clients should be punished for commercial surrogacy arrangements. Other than that, it remains unregulated.[64]
Kenya
There is no legal regulations/laws of surrogacy in Kenya.[65]
Mexico
Surrogacy in Mexico is unregulated in most states and Mexico City as they lack specific legal framework for surrogacy.[66] There are two states that have civil codes that regulate surrogacy: the states of Sinaloa and Tabasco. The state of Sinaloa introduced a civil code pertaining to surrogacy in 2013, and it restricted surrogacy to married couples with proven infertility.[67] The state of Tabasco introduced surrogacy in its civil code in 1997, and it amended its civil code to exclude international intended parents, LGBT individuals, and singles from accessing surrogacy.[68]
In 2021, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation found that the part of civil code of the state of Tabasco that restricted surrogacy to married Mexican couples violated Article 4 of the Constitution of Mexico and therefore is unconstitutional.[69] The court ruled that surrogacy should be accessible to every individual regardless of sexuality, nationality, or marital status for the purpose of building a family, and that the intended parents who commissioned surrogacy should be deemed the legal parents of the child as procreational will should be the basis of determining the legal parentage, not gestational relationship.[70]
In regions of Mexico where surrogacy is unregulated, Amparo trials regularly take place when intended parents petition the federal court to order the local civil registry to register their baby born through surrogacy with a birth certificate showing only the name(s) of the intended parent(s), and in the majority of cases, a favorable ruling (Amparo) is issued.[71]
Malaysia
Surrogacy is currently prohibited by fatwa issued by National Council of Islamic Religious Affairs in 2008.[72]
Altruistic surrogacy is legal in the Netherlands.[73] Commercial surrogacy is illegal in the Netherlands. Although altruistic surrogacy is legal, there is only one hospital taking in couples and there are extremely strict rules to get in. This makes a lot of couples seek their treatment outside the Netherlands.[74]
Belgium
In Belgium, surrogacy is not legally regulated, but it is often practiced, including by foreigners. Only altruistic surrogacy is allowed in the country. The future parents pay the surrogate mother only the expenses related to the pregnancy. For example, compensation for food, clothing, medical procedures, and transportation. Usually, parents find a surrogate mother through private contacts or through forums on the Internet.
Since Belgium does not have any specific law regulating the process of surrogacy, in fact, a private agreement between a surrogate mother and future parents has no legal force, and there are no clear requirements for the surrogate mother's health (for example, there is no obligation to undergo medical and mental examinations before entering into the surrogacy process, no age requirements). And more, according to Belgian law, the legal mother of a child at birth is the person who gave birth to the child, even if there is no genetic relationship with the child. The transfer of parental rights to biological parents takes place in court, through adoption.
The surrogate mother must voluntarily transfer parental rights to the child to the biological parents. If the surrogate mother who gave birth to the child does not want to hand over the child to the biological parents for any reason, the law will be on the side of the surrogate mother. There is no guarantee that the court will order the child's forced transfer to the biological parents. In such conditions, the surrogacy process can be complicated and unpredictable.
In such countries as Poland, Italy, France, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, surrogacy is prohibited by law. However, no country in Europe or the world can ban the human right to parenthood, so Citizens are not deprived of the right to use surrogacy services outside their country.[72]
Surrogacy is unregulated in Nigeria,[75] and surrogacy contracts may be enforceable in Nigerian courts on the basis of simple contracts.[76] Gestational surrogacy is currently practiced in Nigeria by a few IVF clinics. The guidelines are as approved by the practice guidelines of the Association of Fertility and Reproductive Health (AFRH) of Nigeria. The ART regulation that is currently being considered by the Senate permits surrogacy and allows some inducement to be paid for transport and other expenses.[77]
Philippines
There is no legal framework for surrogacy in the Philippines.[78] Philippine laws on parenthood renders legal barriers on transferring the rights to the intended parents.[79]
The Philippine Society of Reproductive Medicine prohibits assisting in the practice of in vitro fertilization and surrogacy through donor sperm and egg cells among its members.[80]
Poland
Surrogacy is mostly unregulated in Poland.[81] A 2015 news report estimated there are likely dozens of surrogate mothers in Poland.[82] According to the Family Code, the legal mother of a child is always the woman who gave birth to them.[83]
Portugal
Heterosexual and lesbian couples could become parents via surrogacy in Portugal since 2016, under certain conditions.[84] Yet, some parts of this law were considered unconstitutional in 2018 and it has since been suspended.[85][86] Traditional surrogacy is illegal in Portugal except for some specific situations that give the right for a surrogate mother to be genetic (for example, if the future adoptive mother is completely barren).[87]
Before the first legal surrogacy law
In 2006, a law was approved that explicitly considered any surrogacy contract to be null and void (Law 32/2006, article 8).[84]
A limited gestational surrogacy law proposed by the Left Bloc was approved in Parliament on the 13 May 2016, which went through considerable modifications during the five months that it took to get it from project to law (it was discussed in a work group with representatives from all parliamentary groups).[88] The law received the favorable votes of the Socialist Party (minus two), Left Bloc (BE), The Greens (PEV), People Animals Nature (PAN), and 24 out of 89 members of the Social Democratic Party (PSD, including the former party leader Pedro Passos Coelho).[88] Both CDS - People's Party (CDS) and the Communist Party (PCP) voted against the proposal.[88] The communists justified their vote as being in line with the recommendations of the National Ethics Council.[88] President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa vetoed the law as soon as he received it, giving the same justification as the Communist Party.[88] The law was once again sent to the Parliament and passed a second time after some changes, on 20 July 2016, with the favorable votes of BE, PS, PEV, PAN and 20 members of PSD.[89] Eight members of PSD abstained, including Pedro Passos Coelho.[89] The remaining members of PSD voted against, as did all members of CDS and PCP.[89]
Limited gestational surrogacy legalization
On 22 August 2016, gestational surrogacy was legalized in Portugal (Law 25/2016) for the cases in which there is an absence of the uterus or, due to lesions or disease, the uterus is unable to successfully carry a pregnancy to term.[90] The article 8 of the 2006 law was revoked.[84] In such cases, the surrogate mother must willingly enter the contract and accept to renounce any motherhood rights and duties.[90] The gestational surrogacy requires a written contract that explicitly deals with the possibility of abortion in certain cases, the Ordem dos Médicos' opinion (which does not need to be positive) and the National Council of Medically Assisted Reproduction's (CNPMA) permission.[90] The only payment/donation that the genetic parents can make in favor of the surrogate mother is her medical expenses[90] and the surrogate mother cannot be economically dependent on the genetic parents.[84] No behavioral restrictions can be imposed on the surrogate mother.[90]
Single men and homosexual male couples cannot have access to gestational surrogacy.[84] The law does not explicitly exclude single women, but requires that only one of the members of the couple has to contribute with genetic material, which may be interpreted as restricting the procedure to couples.[84]
The law does not restrict gestational surrogacy to residents, meaning that Portugal may become a fertility tourism destination.[90]
After the first legal surrogacy law
Adoption of the law caused some debate within several Portuguese Christian Churches,[87] though not among the once-dominant Roman Catholic Church.[citation needed] Representatives of Brazilian and US-based evangelical and Pentecostal churches condemn surrogacy and suggest that infertile couples can/must (depending on the Church) pursue conventional adoption (national or transnational even though the later is banned by law).[citation needed]
After the 2016 law was approved, a regulatory decree (6/2017) was created on 31 July 2017 to materialize the 2016 law that included, for example, the requirement that the surrogacy mother is accompanied by a psychologist during and after the birth.[91]
In February 2017, a petition with more than 4000 signatures (the legal requirement for the Parliament to be forced to discuss the matter of the petition), was submitted to Parliament, asking for a referendum on gestational surrogacy.[89] At the same time, a group of members of CDS and PSD requested that the law was subject to a constitutional inspection.[85] In April 2018, the Constitutional Court deliberated on the matter and declared that some of the law's articles were in fact unconstitutional.[85] The effects of the decision did not apply to any processes that had initiated the therapeutic procedure.[85] This meant that a single process was allowed, while a total of eight processes that were in different stages of progress were considered null and void.[92]
In July 2019, new changes were made to the 2016 law in Parliament in an attempt to revert the Constitutional Court's decisions, but one of the issues raised by the Court (regarding the right of the surrogate mother to choose to keep the baby) failed to make it to the final version of the law.[93] The final version had the positive votes of PS, BE (the author of the proposal), PEV, PAN and 21 PSD members, as well as five abstentions from PSD members.[93] PCP, CDS, and 63 PSD members voted against it.[93] In August 2019, president Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa sent the law to the Constitutional Court for review.[94] In September 2019, the 2016 law, after the 2019 changes, was once again considered unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court.[86]
Russia
Gestational surrogacy, even commercial, is legal in Russia,[95] being available to practically all adults willing to be parents.[96] There must be one of several medical indications for surrogacy: absence of uterus, deformity of the uterine cavity or cervix, uterine cavity synechia, somatic diseases contraindicating child bearing, or repeated failure of IVF despite high-quality embryos.[95]
The first surrogacy program in Russia was successfully implemented in 1995 at the IVF centre of the Obstetrics and Gynecology Institute in St. Petersburg.[97] Public opinion in general is surrogacy-friendly; recent cases of a famous singer and a well-known businesswoman who openly used services of gestational surrogates received positive news coverage. Meanwhile, the Russian Orthodox Church has officially condemned surrogacy. As regards the baptism of the children born through surrogacy, the Russian Orthodox Church holds that a "child born with the assistance of “surrogate motherhood” can be Baptized according to the wishes of the party that will be raising it, if such are either its “biological parents” or its “surrogate mother,” only after they have recognized that, from the Christian point of view, such reproductive technology is morally reprehensible and have borne ecclesial repentance – regardless of whither they ignored the Church's position consciously or unconsciously".[98]
Registration of children born through surrogacy is regulated by the Family Code of Russia (art. 51–52) and the Law on Acts on Civil Status (art. 16). A surrogate's consent is needed for that. Apart from that consent, no adoption nor court decision is required. The surrogate's name is never listed on the birth certificate. There is no requirement for the child to be genetically related to at least one of the commissioning parents.[99]
Children born to heterosexual couples who are not officially married or single intended parents through gestational surrogacy are registered in accordance to analogy of jus (art. 5 of the Family Code). A court decision may be needed in that case. On 5 August 2009 a St. Petersburg court definitely resolved a dispute as to whether single women could apply for surrogacy and obliged the State Registration Authority to register a 35-year-old single intended mother, Nataliya Gorskaya, as the mother of her surrogate son.[100]
On 4 August 2010 a Moscow court ruled that a single man who applied for gestational surrogacy (using donor eggs) could be registered as the only parent of his son, becoming the first man in Russia to defend his right to become a father through court proceedings.[101] The surrogate mother's name was not listed on the birth certificate; the father was listed as the only parent. After that, a few more identical decisions concerning single men who became fathers through surrogacy were issued by different courts in Russia, listing men as the only parents of their surrogate children and confirming that prospective single parents, regardless of their sex or sexual orientation, can exercise their right to parenthood through surrogacy in Russia.
Liberal legislation makes Russia attractive for "reproductive tourists" looking for techniques not available in their countries. Intended parents go there for oocyte donation because of advanced age or marital status (single women and single men) and when surrogacy is considered. Foreigners have the same rights for assisted reproduction as Russian citizens. Within 3 days after the birth, the commissioning parents obtain a Russian birth certificate with both their names on it. Genetic relation to the child (in case of donation) does not matter.[102]
Saudi Arabia
Religious authorities in Saudi Arabia do not allow the use of gestational carriers, instead suggesting medical procedures to restore fertility and ability to deliver.[103]
Serbia
All surrogacy arrangements (both commercial and altruistic) are illegal. A draft of the new civil law is said to allow gestational carriers, but Serbian Assembly still did not adopt this law yet. On 21 April 2017, the Serbian Assembly started a discussion a legislation on assisted reproductive technology that bans all forms of surrogacy. (The legislation is being discussed.)
South Africa
The South Africa Children's Act of 2005 (which came fully into force in 2010) enabled the "commissioning parents" and the surrogate to have their surrogacy agreement validated by the High Court even before fertilization. This allows the commissioning parents to be recognized as legal parents from the outset of the process and helps prevent uncertainty – although if the surrogate mother is the genetic mother she has until 60 days after the birth of the child to change her mind. The law permits single people and gay couples to be commissioning parents.[104] However, only those domiciled in South Africa benefit from the protection of the law, no non-validated agreements will be enforced, and agreements must be altruistic rather than commercial. If there is only one commissioning parent, s/he must be genetically related to the child. If there are two, they must both be genetically related to the child unless that is physically impossible due to infertility or sex (as in the case of a same-sex couple). The Commissioning parent or parents must be physically unable to birth a child independently. The surrogate mother must have had at least one pregnancy and viable delivery and have at least one living child. The surrogate mother has the right to unilaterally terminate the pregnancy, but she must consult with and inform the commissioning parents, and if she is terminating for a non-medical reason, may be obliged to refund any medical reimbursements she had received.[105]
South Korea
As of mid-2010s, surrogacy was available and mostly unregulated in South Korea. The practice is often morally stigmatized. Surrogacy has declined since mid-2000s, as some aspects of commercial surrogacy became illegal.[106]
Spain
Whereas surrogacy is not legal in Spain (the biological mother's renouncement contract is not legally valid), it is legal to perform the surrogacy in a country where it is legal, having the mother the nationality from that same country.[107]
Sweden
Surrogacy is illegal in Swedish healthcare,[108] but there are no legal regulations/laws of surrogacy for it and it remains unregulated.[109]
Switzerland
Surrogacy is regulated in the "Bundesgesetz über die medizinisch unterstützte Fortpflanzung (Fortpflanzungsmedizingesetz, FMedG) vom 18. Dezember 1998" and illegal in Switzerland. Art. 4 forbids surrogacy, Art. 31 regulates the punishment of clinicians who apply in vitro fertilisation for surrogacy or persons who arrange surrogacy. The surrogate mother is not punished by law. She will be the legal mother of the child.
On 24 August 2014, the Administrative Court of the Canton of St. Gallen granted parentship to two men of a child born in the USA.[110]
Thailand
In response to the controversial Baby Gammy incident in 2014, Thailand since 30 July 2015, has banned foreign people travelling to Thailand, to have commercial surrogacy contract arrangement, under the Protection of Children Born from Assisted Reproductive Technologies Act. Only opposite-sex married couples as Thailand residents are allowed to have a commercial surrogacy contract arrangement. In the past Thailand was a popular destination for couples seeking surrogate mothers.[111][112][113]
Ukraine is a major international surrogacy destination, given its very liberal laws, as well as the fact that prices are more affordable than in the United States.[114]
Since 2002, surrogacy and surrogacy in combination with egg/sperm donation has been absolutely legal in Ukraine. According to the law a donor or a surrogate mother has no parental rights over the child born and the child born is legally the child of the prospective parents.[114][115] This is possible because in Ukraine a woman can give birth to a child without being considered the child's mother.[116] In other countries a woman automatically becomes the mother of a child by giving birth, even if the surrogate mother is not genetically related to the child she carried.[116]
In Ukraine the start of the introduction of methods of supporting reproductive medicine was given in the eighties of the preceding century. It was Kharkiv where the extracorporeal fertilization method was for the first time successfully applied in Ukraine, and in 1991 a girl named Katy was born. Kharkiv was also the first city in the former Soviet Union to realize surrogacy. Many clinics dealing with surrogacy have been opened in Kyiv[117] and Kharkiv.[116]
Ukrainian surrogacy laws are very favorable and fully support the individual's reproductive rights. Surrogacy is officially regulated by Clause 123 of the Family Code of Ukraine and the order of the Ministry of health of Ukraine "On approval of the application of assisted reproductive technologies in Ukraine" from 09.09.2013 No. 787. You can choose between Gestational Surrogacy, Egg/sperm Donation, special Embryo adoption programs and their combinations. No specific permission from any regulatory body is required for that.[115][114] A written informed consent of all parties (intended parents and surrogate) participating in the surrogacy program is mandatory. The intended mother has to demonstrate that there is, in fact, a medical reason that makes impossible for her to get pregnant, either because there is a risk for her or for the baby.
However, Ukraine does not support surrogacy for family models different from the heterosexual one, leaving apart single parent families, lesbian couples, etc.
Ukrainian legislation allows intended parents to carry on a surrogacy program and their names will be on the birth certificate of the child born as a result of the surrogacy program from the very beginning. The child is considered to be legally "belonging" to the prospective parents from the very moment of conception. The surrogate's name is never listed on the birth certificate. The surrogate can't keep the child after the birth. Even if a donation program took place and there is no biological relation between the child and the intended mother, their names will be on the birth certificate (Clause 3 of article 123 of the Family Code of Ukraine).
Embryo research is also allowed, gamete and embryo donation permitted on a commercial level. Single women can be treated by known or anonymous donor insemination. Gestational surrogacy is an option for officially married couples only (a man and a woman) if they are able to prove they cannot carry a baby themselves for medical reasons and at least one parent must have a genetic link to the newborn baby.[115][114] Surrogacy in Ukraine is not regulated in law as commercial, it is more close to altruistic, as the so-called "payment" is not performed to the surrogate mother, it is called a compensation and is not under obligation to pay taxes.
The ongoing war and Russian invasion of Ukraine has not stopped the surrogacy industry.[118] From the beginning of the invasion in February 2022 to July 2023 more than 1,000 children have been born in Ukraine to surrogate mothers.[118] 600 children were born at the BiotexCom clinic in Kyiv, one of Europe’s largest surrogacy clinics.[118] Foreigners still traveled to Ukraine to collect the babies they had paid for despite the constant threat of Russian bombardments.[118] In March 2022 Ukrainian MPs proposed prohibiting foreigners from using the services of Ukrainian surrogate mothers during martial law, but this proposal was voted down two months later.[118]
In July 2023 the BiotexCom clinic charged €40,000 for its services.[118] The clinic stated that more than half of that sum goes to the surrogate mothers.[118] In March 2022 Deutsche Welle reported that all-inclusive packages did cost between €30,000 ($33,000) and €40,000; and that the Ukrainian woman earned about €15,000 to €20,000 for her taking part in the surrogacy program — (that was) several times more than the average annual salary.[116]
United Kingdom
Altruistic surrogacy is legal in the United Kingdom, however, commercial surrogacy arrangements are not: as they are prohibited by section 2 of the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985.[119] Additionally, advertisement was made a criminal offense under section 3 of the Surrogacy Arrangement Act,[120] however, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 adds an exception, allowing non-profit agency to advertise.[121] Whilst it is illegal in the UK to pay more than reasonable expenses for a surrogacy, the relationship is recognised under section 30 of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990. However, in the case of parental orders applied for as a result of international surrogacy arrangements, the court has retroactively authorised payment for commercial arrangements when it is in the child's best interest, see Re L (A Minor) [2010] E.W.H.C. 3146 (Fam), J v G [2013] E.W.H.C. 1432 (Fam), Re X and Y (Parental Order: Retrospective Authorisation of Payments) [2012] E.W.H.C. 3147 (Fam) and Re C (Parental Order) [2013] E.W.H.C. 2413 (Fam).[122] ‘It will only be in the clearest case of the abuse of public policy that the court will be able to withhold an order if otherwise welfare considerations support its making.’[123] Regardless of contractual or financial consideration for expenses, surrogacy arrangements are not legally enforceable under section 1A[124] of the Surrogacy Arrangements Act; therefore, a surrogate mother maintains the legal right of determination for the child, even if they are genetically unrelated. Unless a parental order or adoption order is made, the surrogate mother remains the legal mother of the child.[125][126] This is because under section 33 of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 (HFEA 2008) ‘mother’ is the women who has, or is carrying the child.[127] Additionally, if the surrogate is married, under section 42 HFEA 2008 their partner becomes the other legal parent, unless it can be shown they did not consent to the surrogate's insemination.[127]
Parental Orders
Legal Parenthood through a parental order can be obtained under section 54 HFEA 2008,[128] for two applicants, and section 54A HFEA 2008,[129] for single applicants. In order to meet the criteria under section 54 HFEA 2008, an application must be made by two people in an enduring family relationship, and one of their gametes were used in the insemination, subject to section 54(1) and section 54(2).[130] In X (A Child: Foreign Surrogacy) [2018] E.W.F.C. 15 the couple openly acknowledged they were in a “sham marriage” however, this was unproblematic under section 54: as the court still considered them to be in a lasting relationship.[131] Under section 54(3) the application must be made no later than 6 months after the child's birth.[132] Under section 54(4)(a) and 54(4)(b) at the time of the application the child must be living with the applicants, at least one of which is domiciled in the UK.[133] Both applicants when applying must be over the age of 18, as required by section 54(5).[134] The surrogate and any other individual with parental rights must give their full and informed consent to the parental order, as required under section 54(6)(a) and 54(6)(b) unless, under section 54(7) they lack the capacity to consent.[135] Moreover, under section 54(8) the court must be satisfied the no payment has been given, other than reasonable expenses, unless authorised by the court.[136] Under section 54A HFEA 2008, the requirements are the same as under 54, except 54A(1) allows for one applicant, provided the child was not carried by them and their gametes were used in the insemination.[137]
Best Interest of the Child
In the first UK surrogacy case Re C (A Minor) (Wardship: Surrogacy) (Baby Cotton Case) [1985] F.L.R. 846. Latey J stated, ‘morals and ethics are irrelevant, what matters is what is in the child’s best interest.’[138] When considering if a parental order should be granted the primary consideration of the court is child welfare, pursuant to the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Parental Orders) (Consequential, Transitional and Savings Provision) Order 2010,[139] which imports the provisions of section 1 of the Adoption and Children Act 2002 into section 54[128] of the HFEA 2008.[140] The primacy of child welfare has resulted in a more flexible application of section 54(3), to accommodate the child's best interest. In Re Re X (A Child) (Surrogacy: Time Limit) [2014] E.W.H.C. 3135 (Fam) Munby P states, excluding parental orders made even a day late is ‘…the very antithesis of sensible; it is almost nonsensical.”[141] Munby P states this is because of the large impact on, not just the applicants, but ‘…the innocent child, whose welfare is the courts paramount concern.’[141] This flexible approach was followed in KB & RJ v RT (Rev 1) [2016] E.W.H.C. 760 (Fam) where a parental order was granted to a two-year-old child.[142]
United States
Surrogacy and its attendant legal issues fall under state jurisdiction and the legal situation for surrogacy varies greatly from state to state. Some states have written legislation, while others have developed common law regimes for dealing with surrogacy issues. Some states facilitate surrogacy and surrogacy contracts, others simply refuse to enforce them, and some penalize commercial surrogacy. Surrogacy friendly states tend to enforce both commercial and altruistic surrogacy contracts and facilitate straightforward ways for the intended parents to be recognized as the child's legal parents. Some relatively surrogacy friendly states only offer support for married heterosexual couples. Generally, only gestational surrogacy is supported and traditional surrogacy finds little to no legal support.
States generally considered to be surrogacy friendly include California,[143] Illinois,[144] Arkansas,[145] Maryland,[146] Washington D.C., Oregon,[147] and New Hampshire[148] among others. Both New Jersey and Washington state commercial surrogacy laws became effective from 1/1/2019.
For legal purposes, key factors are where the contract is completed, where the gestational carrier resides, and where the birth takes place. Therefore, individuals living in a non-friendly state can still benefit from the policies of surrogacy friendly states by working with a surrogate who lives and will give birth in a friendly state.
The variations in policy mean that employee surrogacy benefits, which an increasing number of employers offer, can only be enjoyed in certain jurisdictions.[149]
Arkansas
Arkansas was one of the first states to enact surrogacy friendly laws. In 1989, under then-Governor Bill Clinton, it passed Act 647, which states that in a surrogacy arrangement, the biological father and his wife will be recognized as the child's legal parents from birth, even if his wife is not genetically related to the child (i.e., in a traditional surrogacy arrangement). If he is unmarried, he alone will be recognized as the legal parent. A woman may also be recognized as the legal mother of the surrogate's genetic child as long as that child was conceived with anonymous donor sperm.[150] On the other hand, it is unclear how or whether same-sex couples could benefit these laws, since the 2008 ballot measure that made it illegal for unmarried, cohabiting individuals to adopt or provide foster care to minors.[151] On 26 June 2015, the 2008 ballot issue is moot because of Obergefell v. Hodges.
California
California is known to be a surrogacy-friendly state. It permits commercial surrogacy, regularly enforces gestational surrogacy contracts, and makes it possible for all intended parents, regardless of marital status or sexual orientation, to establish their legal parentage prior to the birth and without adoption proceedings (pre-birth orders).[143][152]
Louisiana
Louisiana restricts surrogacy to married, heterosexual couples who are using their own gametes. Surrogacy via egg and/or sperm donation is prohibited. No compensation of the surrogate is allowed, prohibiting commercial surrogacy statewide. All parties must have been Louisiana residents for at least six months at the time of entering the surrogacy contract. The surrogacy must be considered medically necessary, and court approval prior to embryo transfer is required.[153]
Michigan
On April 1, 2024, Michigan legalized compensated and altruistic surrogacy agreements.[154] Previously, Michigan forbade all surrogacy agreements, compensated or not, with it having been a felony to enter into such agreements, punishable by fines of up to $50,000 and up to five years in prison. [155]
New Hampshire
Since 2014, New Hampshire is recognized as a surrogacy friendly state, with laws in place to protect all parties to a surrogacy arrangement. All intended parents, irrespective of marital status, sexual orientation, or a genetic connection to the child, are able to establish their legal parental rights through pre-birth orders placing their names directly on the child's initial birth certificate. Reasonable compensation to the surrogate is permitted by statute.[156]
New York
As of February 15, 2021, New York law allows for compensated gestational surrogacy agreements and provides a simple path to establish legal parental rights for parents who rely on assisted reproductive technology to have children.[157] The law, the Child-Parent Security Act, also created a first-in-the-nation "Surrogate's Bill of Rights" governing all of the surrogacy arrangements under its auspices.[158]
Oklahoma
On 23 May 2019, Gov. Kevin Stitt signed into law HB2468,[159] which legalizes and recognizes the validity of both compensated and uncompensated gestational surrogacy agreements. Under the bill, a comprehensive court procedure is created to validate all gestational agreements. The bill also allows a court to enter pre-birth orders establishing parentage prior to the birth of the child. The bill applies to gestational agreements entered into by single individuals, as well as heterosexual and homosexual couples, who wish to become parents.[160]
Rhode Island
Rhode Island permits gestational surrogacy, as cited in the Uniform Parentage Act, which took effect January 1, 2021. This act allows couples, married or unmarried, or individuals, homosexual or heterosexual, to use their own gametes or those of an egg and/or sperm donor to conceive a child via surrogacy. It also allows pre-birth orders, as long as at least one intended parent is a US resident.[161]
Wisconsin
There is no law prohibiting gestational surrogacy in Wisconsin. In July 2013 the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled in the case of Rosecky v. Schissel that the surrogacy agreement between the parties was legal and enforceable,[162] striking down an earlier Circuit Court ruling and thus setting a precedent in the state. Chief JusticeShirley Abrahamson and Justice Ann Walsh Bradley filing a strongly worded concurring opinion, stating that “A parenting agreement is a valid enforceable contract,” “unless enforcement is contrary to the best interests of the child.”[163]
Lawsuits
Baby M: New Jersey 1988. The surrogate mother in a traditional surrogacy arrangement decided to keep the resulting child. The intended parents sued to have themselves recognized as the legal parents. The New Jersey Supreme Court found that the surrogacy contract was invalid as a matter of New Jersey public policy. However, the intended parents were given custody of the child because the courts thought they would provide a better home for the baby than the surrogate mother, who was instead given visitation rights.
Vietnam
Surrogacy for humanitarian purposes has been allowed in Vietnam from 2015 after the amended Family and Marriage Law passed with nearly 60% of votes from the National Assembly.
Under the new law, surrogacy will only be allowed among married couples, who do not have any common child, after doctors confirm the wife can not give birth even with technical support. The surrogate must be a relative of either the husband or wife, and have already given birth successfully. A woman is only allowed to be a surrogate once in her life and must produce her husband's approval if she's married. The embryo must be created by the intended parents' sperm and ovum.[164] The process must be voluntary and follow in-vitro fertilization regulations.
Related Research Articles
Baby M was the pseudonym used in the case In re Baby M, 537 A.2d 1227, 109 N.J. 396 for the infant whose legal parentage was in question.
Surrogacy is an arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman agrees to childbirth on behalf of another person(s) who will become the child's parent(s) after birth. People pursue surrogacy for a variety of reasons such as infertility, dangers or undesirable factors of pregnancy, or when pregnancy is a medical impossibility.
The main family law of Japan is Part IV of Civil Code. The Family Register Act contains provisions relating to the family register and notifications to the public office.
Tasmania's Relationships Act 2003 provided for registration and recognition of a type of registered partnership in two distinct categories: Significant Relationships and Caring Relationships. The same Act also amended 73 pieces of legislation to provide registered partners with nearly all of the rights offered to married couples within the state. Furthermore, since July 2009, these relationships are recognised at federal level, providing couples with almost all of the federal rights and benefits of marriage. The legislation came into effect on 1 January 2004. In September 2010, the Parliament of Tasmania approved legislation to recognize same-sex unions performed outside Tasmania as significant relationships.
The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It created the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority which is in charge of human embryo research, along with monitoring and licensing fertility clinics in the United Kingdom.
Fertility tourism is the practice of traveling to another country or jurisdiction for fertility treatment, and may be regarded as a form of medical tourism. A person who can become pregnant is considered to have fertility issues if they are unable to have a clinical pregnancy after 12 months of unprotected intercourse. Infertility, or the inability to get pregnant, affects about 8-12% of couples looking to conceive or 186 million people globally. In some places, rates of infertility surpass the global average and can go up to 30% depending on the country. Areas with lack of resources, such as assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs), tend to correlate with the highest rates of infertility.
Religious response to assisted reproductive technology deals with the new challenges for traditional social and religious communities raised by modern assisted reproductive technology. Because many religious communities have strong opinions and religious legislation regarding marriage, sex and reproduction, modern fertility technology has forced religions to respond.
Surrogacy in India and Indian surrogates became increasingly popular amongst intended parents in industrialised nations because of the relatively low costs and easy access offered by Indian surrogacy agencies. Clinics charged patients between $10,000 and $28,000 for the complete package, including fertilization, the surrogate's fee, and delivery of the baby at a hospital. Including the costs of flight tickets, medical procedures and hotels, this represented roughly a third of the price of the procedure in the UK and a fifth of that in the US. Surrogate mothers received medical, nutritional and overall health care through surrogacy agreements.
A.G.R. v. D.R.H & S.H. is a ruling by the Superior Court of New Jersey, Hudson County Vicinage, and is the first precedent regarding gestational surrogacy in New Jersey. The ruling was handed down by Judge Francis Schultz on December 23, 2009.
The Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that prohibits commercial surrogacy arrangements. It received Royal Assent on 16 July 1985.
Law in Australia with regard to children is often based on what is considered to be in the best interest of the child. The traditional and often used assumption is that children need both a mother and a father, which plays an important role in divorce and custodial proceedings, and has carried over into adoption and fertility procedures. As of April 2018 all Australian states and territories allow adoption by same-sex couples.
The Akanksha Infertility Clinic is a women's health centre located in Anand, Gujarat, India, and headed by Dr Nayna Patel. The clinic was founded in 1999, and was originally focused on In Vitro Fertilization. India declared commercial surrogacy legal in 2002; however the clinic did not begin to do surrogacy until 2004. Patel, who appeared on Oprah Winfrey's talk show in 2007, has produced more than 1000 surrogate babies as of October 2015.
In July 2014, a Thai woman, Pattaramon Chanbua, hired as a surrogate mother by an Australian couple, David John Farnell and Wenyu Wendy Li, sought to raise money for her critically-ill surrogate son, Gammy. The infant had been in her care since December 2013, when the biological parents, Farnell and Li, had left Thailand with baby Gammy's twin sister Pipah.
LGBT parents in Canada have undergone significant progress in terms of both legal and social acceptance. Same-sex couples who wish for parenthood now enjoy equally the possibilities, responsibilities and rights of opposite-sex couples. Following the nationwide legalization of same-sex marriage in 2005, the number of LGBT families in Canada has increased substantially, paving the way for same-sex couples' aspirations of having their own children. Legal methods of assisted reproduction range from insemination via IVF through to surrogacy arrangements.
Surrogacy is legal in New Zealand if it is performed altruistically, where the surrogate donates her services selflessly, without any compensation beyond the coverage of expenses. Commercial surrogacy, where the surrogate is paid in addition to the coverage of expenses, is not legal. There is a lack of specific legislation and regulations dealing with surrogacy, though the recent increase in surrogacy cases has led to a number of amendments. New Zealand is party to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and ratified it in April 1993. The primary principle of this convention is that the best interests of the child are paramount, which must then encompass all surrogacy agreements and regulations. The lack of clear surrogacy legislation in New Zealand has led to many couples engaging in reproductive tourism in order to ensure the surrogacy is successful. This has the potential to significantly impact the human rights of all of the parties involved.
Louisa Maria Ghevaert is a solicitor of the Senior Courts of England and Wales.
Surrogacy is legal in Canada provided that it is altruistic (unpaid). The Assisted Human Reproduction Act of 2004 criminalizes commercial surrogacy. The validity of surrogacy contracts and the process for establishing parenthood of the child is governed by provincial law. Quebec law did not recognize surrogacy contracts from 1994 to 2023, and continues to regulate them more strictly, whereas British Columbia has the most permissive laws governing surrogacy. Provinces also vary in the degree to which they compensate surrogacy expenses, such as IVF procedures.
Susan GolombokFBA is Professor of Family Research and Director of the Centre for Family Research at the University of Cambridge, and Professorial Fellow at Newnham College, Cambridge. Her research on new family forms has contributed to theoretical understanding of family influences on child development and has addressed social and ethical issues that are of relevance to family life.
Circle Surrogacy is a US-based surrogacy agency headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts. Circle Surrogacy carries an audited success rate for intended parents having a baby at 99.3%.
M.R. and D.R. & ors v An tArd-Chláraitheoir & ors, [2014] IESC 60 is an Irish Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the Civil Registration Act 2004 only allows the birth mother to be on the birth certificate. Thus, children born through surrogacy will have the name of their birth mother on their birth certificate and not of the genetic mother, who intends to raise them.
↑ Hugh Beale, Arthur Hartkamp, Hein Kotx, Dennis Tallon, Cases, materials and text on contract law, ius commune casebooks on the Common Law of Europe, Hart Publishing, 2002, pp. 302f. casebooks.euArchived 19 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine
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1 2 3 Inhorn, Marcia (25 March 2012). The New Arab Man Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East. Princeton University Press. p.208. ISBN9781400842629.
↑ "L 40/2004". www.camera.it. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
↑ "Sentenza in materia di procreazione medicalmente assistita"[Sentence in matter of surrogacy (Press Release)](pdf) (in Italian). Italian Supreme Court of Cassation,Joint session of the Civil Sections. 8 May 2019. Archived from the original on 5 April 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
↑ "UBC Wiki - Surrogacy in Japan". wiki.ubc.ca. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Surrogacy in Japan is not illegal by law, but remains a controversial and unethical practice in the Japanese culture.
↑ "IVF Conceptions". 12 September 2022. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2021. To date, Kenya has no law governing Surrogacy. However, it has been offering surrogacy successfully to African patients for many years. Kenya has no surrogacy law regarding gestational surrogacy.
↑ Adelakun, Olanike S (2018). "The concept of surrogacy in Nigeria: Issues, prospects and challenges". African Human Rights Law Journal. 18 (2). doi:10.17159/1996-2096/2018/v18n2a8.
↑ Ajayi, Abayomi Bolaji; Ajayi, Victor Dayo (2016). "Gestational Surrogacy in Nigeria". In Sills, E. Scott (ed.). Handbook of Gestational Surrogacy. pp.212–216. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316282618. ISBN978-1-316-28261-8.
↑ Abiola Adewusi, Chizara Okeke, Kemi Ailoje and Oladapo A. Ashiru, The 6th Conference of GIERAF Cote Dé Ivoire, 7–10 February 2017.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Raposo, Vera (2017). "Tudo aquilo que você sempre quis saber sobre contratos de gestação (mas o legislador teve medo de responder)". Revista do Ministério Público.
↑ Stuyver, I.; De Sutter, P.; Svitnev, K.; Taylor, K.; Haimes, E.; Sills, E. S.; Collins, G. S.; Walsh, D. J.; Omar, A. B.; Salma, U.; Walsh, A. P. H. (June 2010). "Posters * Ethics and Law". Human Reproduction. 25 (Supplement 1): i235–i236. doi:10.1093/humrep/de.25.s1.306.
↑ Christie, AnnabelArchived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine , "South Africa shows a way to ensure more predictability in surrogacy arrangements," BioNews, 9 January 2012. Retrieved 1-11-2012
↑ Law Commission, Building families through surrogacy: a new law (Law Com No 244, 2019) p70.
↑ Fenton-Glynn, Claire (March 2015). "The Difficulty of Enforcing Surrogacy Regulations". The Cambridge Law Journal. 74 (1): 34–37. doi:10.1017/S0008197315000203.
↑ Re L (Commercial Surrogacy) [2010] E.W.H.C. 3146 (Fam), Hedley J at [10].
↑ Brahams, Diana (February 1987). "The Hasty British Ban on Commercial Surrogacy". The Hastings Center Report. 17 (1): 16–19. doi:10.2307/3562435. JSTOR3562435. PMID3557939.
↑ Fenton-Glynn, Claire (2015). "The Difficulty of Enforcing Surrogacy Regulations". The Cambridge Law Journal. 74 (1): 34–35. doi:10.1017/S0008197315000203.
1 2 Re X (A Child) (Surrogacy: Time Limit) [2014] E.W.H.C. 3135 (Fam), Munby P at [55].
↑ Rosecky v. Schissel,349 Wis.N.W.2d833, 634(Wis. Supreme CourtJuly 2013)("A parenting agreement is a valid enforceable contract, unless enforcement is contrary to the best interests of the child."),archived from the original.
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