Youth detention center

Last updated

Harris County Juvenile Detention Center, Houston, Texas HarrisCoJuvenileDetentionCenter.JPG
Harris County Juvenile Detention Center, Houston, Texas

In criminal justice systems, a youth detention center, known as a juvenile detention center (JDC), [1] juvenile detention, juvenile jail, juvenile hall, or more colloquially as juvie/juvy or the Juvey Joint, also sometimes referred to as observation home or remand home [2] is a prison for people under the age of majority, to which they have been sentenced and committed for a period of time, or detained on a short-term basis while awaiting trial or placement in a long-term care program. Juveniles go through a separate court system, the juvenile court, which sentences or commits juveniles to a certain program or facility. [3]

Contents

Some juveniles are released directly back into the community to undergo community-based rehabilitative programs, while others juveniles may pose a greater threat to society and to themselves and therefore are in need of a stay in a supervised juvenile detention center. [4] If a juvenile is sent by the courts to a juvenile detention center, there are two types of facilities: secure detention and secure confinement. [4]

Secure detention means that juveniles are held for usually short periods of time in facilities in order to await current trial hearings and further placement decisions. [4] By holding juveniles in secure detention, it ensures appearance in court while also keeping the community safe and risk-free of the juvenile. [4] This type of facility is usually called a "juvenile hall," which is a holding center for juvenile delinquents. [1] On the other hand, secure confinement implies that the juvenile has been committed by the court into the custody of a secure juvenile correctional facility for the duration of a specific program, which can span from a few months to many years. [4]

Juvenile detention is not intended to be punitive. Rather, juveniles held in secure custody usually receive care consistent with the doctrine of parens patriae , i.e., the state as parent. The state or local jurisdiction is usually responsible for providing education, recreation, health, assessment, counseling and other intervention services with the intent of maintaining a youth's well-being during his or her stay in custody. [5]

Generally speaking, secure detention is reserved for juveniles considered to be a threat to public safety or the court process, though in many cases, youths are held for violating a court order. Status offenders, i.e., juveniles charged with running away from home, alcohol possession, and other offenses that are not crimes if committed by adults, may only be held for 24 hours or less, [6] while initial case investigation is completed, and other alternatives are arranged.[ citation needed ]

Within the categories of secure detention and secure confinement for juveniles, the overarching name of these facilities is residential programs. Five overarching types of residential programs where a juvenile may be placed while in court custody: [7] The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention found the five types of residential programs for juveniles to be a broad range, which included detention, corrections, camp, community based, and residential treatment. [7] The reason for the wide variety in placement options of juveniles is that there does not currently exist a uniform definition of residential treatment programs. [7] As a result, this creates a lack of uniformity across states and a large variety of names for secure detention and secure confinement centers for juveniles. [7]

Services provided to the youth

Many services are supposed to be provided to the youth at both detention centers and confinement facilities. Services vary from facility to facility, but in general the programs and services provided to the youth are geared toward the juvenile's needs. [5] At the core, juvenile facilities function as rehabilitative institutions for youth. Education is seen by many as the primary rehabilitative service that must be provided to detained youth. [8] Highly effective schools within juvenile facilities provide high school curriculum, opportunities for General Equivalency Diploma (GED) preparation, special education services, certified teachers, small student to teacher ratio, connection with families, and vocational training opportunities. [8] Despite state and federal requirements, there are many problems with the educational systems in juvenile detention centers. Many institutions do not provide basic education services, and in others, children only receive a fraction of the state-mandated instructional time, and classes are not based on a coherent curriculum.(Katherine Twomey, The right to Education in Juvenile Detention Under State Constitutions, p. 766). Some facilities do not have designated classrooms, libraries, or even books, and the teachers are often poorly trained, and are not trained in how to deal with special needs of children in detention. (Id. at 767.) Despite these shortcomings, there have been very few consequences to states for violating the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act, (Id. at 779.); therefore, states do not have much incentive to improve standards to achieve compliance.

Mental health

There is a long-standing connection found in research between youth who commit crimes and mental health concerns. [9] A remarkably high population of juveniles present serious mental health illness within juvenile facilities. [10] Since juvenile detention facilities operate on the foundation of rehabilitating the youth, different mental health programs are provided by facilities to help the youth rehabilitate. It is the expectation that juvenile detention centers and juvenile institutions provide mental health services to their residents. [11] The incarcerated youth population requires careful and structured intervention, which must be provided by the facilities. [11]

Many different mental health treatment strategies exist for juveniles. [12] It is the responsibility of case management to decide what type of intervention strategy works best for each youth in his or her mental health treatment plan. [12] Mental health services that can be provided to the youth include, individual counseling, group counseling, crisis counseling, family intervention, medication management, and transition planning. [13]

Education

Education is seen by many as the cornerstone of youth rehabilitation. Many landmark court cases, such as the 1981 case of Green v. Johnson, have given way to juveniles receiving their educational rights while incarcerated. [14] Green v. Johnson (1981) ruled that incarcerated students do not have to give up their rights to an education while incarcerated. [15]

Despite research stating the need for strong educational programs in juvenile detention facilities, there does not exist a uniform standard for education in juvenile facilities as education settings in juvenile facilities greatly vary across the country. [16] The overseer of the school within the juvenile facility differs from state to state. [16] Some schools within juvenile detention facilities are decentralized, some are centralized and run by school districts, and others are overseen by a State education agency. [16]

Special education

There is a large percentage of incarcerated juveniles who are diagnosed as students with special needs. [16] Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), youths with disabilities in correctional facilities are entitled to special education and related services regardless of incarceration status. [16] The Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) requires State Education Agencies to ensure that special education services are being provided at juvenile facilities. [16] [17]

Being that there is a wide variety a short term or long term stay. [14]

There is a grave presence of juveniles who are classified as youth with disabilities. [17] The disabilities most prevalent in incarcerated juveniles include intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, and emotional disturbances. [18] Surveys and studies have found that a high number of incarcerated youth suffer from emotional disturbance disabilities as opposed to youth in general public schools. [19] Even with key court decisions and acts, it has been found that a large number of juveniles held at both detention centers and confinement facilities are not being served the special education services they should be provided by law. [20] It has been found that many juvenile detention institutions have struggling special education programs, especially for those centers that detain youth for short periods of time. [21]

Zero Tolerance Policies in Juvenile Court Schools

Juvenile Court Schools provide public education for juveniles who are incarcerated in facilities run by county probation departments. These schools are located in juvenile halls, juvenile homes, day centers, ranches, camps, and regional youth education facilities and are operated by the county board of education. Even though court schools have the same school curriculum, they are often more strict in discipline that is more punitive than holistic. The most disadvantaged and "troubled" students are filling up schools in the juvenile justice system. These students are often further behind in credits and with more personal and structural problems than their counterparts at traditional schools.[ citation needed ] The majority of these teenagers struggle with learning disabilities, which ties with noticeable behavioral problems, and are experiencing emotional and psychological problems at home. Zero tolerance policies seem to be more strict in the juvenile justice system than in other traditional schools. In a juvenile court school, when a student violates a zero tolerance rule they automatically are prone to suspension and eventually going back to a detention center for its violation. In contrast, a student from a traditional school is more likely to get a second chance for its violation. Zero Tolerance policies are enforced in a greater manner in juvenile court schools than in other traditional schools.[ citation needed ]

The rules at Juvenile Court Schools are strict and are based on zero tolerance policies. Zero Tolerance Policies may serve more to "push students further out of school and into the school-to-prison pipeline than to re engage them". [22] Students are being harshly punished for minor incidents that should be fixed without having to involve severe consequences. Zero tolerance policies have taken over the role of education. The definition of Zero Tolerance Policies is described in the article, A Study of Zero Tolerance Policies in Schools: A Multi-Integrated Systems Approach to Improve Outcomes for Adolescents, as "…a widespread application to minor offenses can be attributed to the "Broken Windows" theory of crime. This theory analogizes the spread of crime to a few broken windows in a building that go un-repaired and consequently attract vagrants who break more windows and soon become squatters". [23]

Stephen Hoffman in his article, "Zero Benefit: Estimating the Effect of Zero Tolerance Discipline Policies on Racial Disparities in School Discipline" states that, "...zero tolerance discipline policies are associated with poorer school climate, lower student achievement, higher dropout rates…" [24] At Juvenile Court Schools, students are expected to follow a set of rules. The rules at the Court Schools differ from those at traditional schools; they are more punitive.

Concerns and criticism

Two major concerns in regard to juvenile detention centers and long-term confinement facilities have been raised: overcrowding and ineffectiveness. As the number of juvenile cases has increased in the past 15 years, so has the number of juveniles spending time in secure and confined facilities. [25] As a result, the system has become overcrowded, often leading to a shortage of available beds. [25]

Overcrowding exists in many facilities for juveniles, [26] and in overcrowded juvenile detention centers and correctional facilities increased violence can occur. [25] Furthermore, overcrowding can lead to a shortage of necessary and promised programs and services in the facility. [25] Underfunding an overcrowded facility can lead to a shortage of services for the youth, such as education and mental health services. [5]

Apart from overcrowding, the overall efficacy of juvenile secure facilities in the life of youth has been questioned. [25] The high juvenile recidivism rate has caused many critics to question the overall efficacy of secure detention centers and confinement facilities. [25]

Some Youth Detention Centers have earned a street term, known as "Gladiator Schools" by the wards who were incarcerated there. An oral history of stories from inside the California Youth Authority is documented by David Reeve (2017-2024). "Gladiator School: Stories from Inside YTS (An oral history from those who were incarcerated in the California Youth Authority)". [27]


Systems

United States

There were 45,567 total juveniles in detention facilities in 2016. 32,301 juveniles were in a public facility. 13,266 were in a private facility. [28]

Connecticut

In 1870, Long Lane School was built on donated land in Middletown. [29] [ better source needed ] However, it became the Connecticut Juvenile Training School (CJTS) in 2003. [30] CJTS is a treatment facility dedicated to delinquent boys from age 12–17. [31] There have been numerous controversies and scandals associated with CJTS between 1998 and 2005. [32] In 2005, Governor Jodi Rell attempted to close the facility, but it was instead reformed in 2008 by The Department of Children & Families. [33] The new CJTS features a therapeutic model which was developed with assistance from The Boys & Girls Clubs of America. [31] The school was shut down without replacement in 2018. [34]

District of Columbia

The Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services (DYRS) is the District of Columbia's head juvenile justice agency and is responsible for placing DC community youth who are in its oversight in detention, commitment, and aftercare programs. [35]

DYRS offers and operates a range of services and placements for their committed youth. The secure centers that DYRS operates are Youth Services Center (YSC) and New Beginnings Youth Development Center. [36] YSC is the District's secure detention center. [36] New Beginnings Youth Development Center is a secure confinement facility for the District's committed youth. [36]

YSC is operated by DYRS as the District of Columbia's secure juvenile detention center, which was opened in 2004. [37] It is an 88-bed facility for male and female detained (not committed) youth who have been accused of delinquent acts and are awaiting their court hearings. [37] YSC's meets the required needs of the youth it serves. Education services in YSC are provided by the District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS), which delivers a range of services to the residents. [37] The facility also provides programs and services to meet the essential mental health, emotional, physical, and social needs of the youth. [37] YSC provides a secure and humane environment and coordinates all court meetings and team meetings for its youth. [37] Above all else, YSC makes certain that the protection of the legal rights of the juveniles are being upheld. [37]

New Beginnings Youth Development Center is another secure DYRS operation. [38] The center is a 60-bed, all-male secure center for DC's most serious youth delinquents. [39] The $46 million facility [40] opened in 2009 [41] in unincorporated Anne Arundel County, Maryland, [42] near Laurel. New Beginnings replaced the Oak Hill Youth Center, [40] which was located .5 miles (0.80 km) away [41] in unincorporated Anne Arundel County. [42]

The main goal of New Beginnings is to provide residents with 24-hour supervision as well as programs and services that allow for successful transitions back into the DC community. [39] The services provided include educational, recreation, medical, dental, and mental health programs. [39] DYRS created a partnership with the See Forever Foundation to provide the educational services of Maya Angelou Academy for the residents. [39] Behavioral health staff oversee the mental health programs. [39] The facility is a 9–12-month program, which is modeled after the very successful Missouri Model. [39]

Maya Angelou Academy was founded in 2008, first at Oak Hill Youth Center, and now is the education program serving DYRS committed youth at New Beginnings Youth Development Center. [43] Maya Angelou Academy is part of the Maya Angelou Charter School Network in the DC area. [43] The academy provides a safe, structured, and intensive learning environment to the youth it serves at New Beginnings Youth Development Center. [43]

Pennsylvania

PA Child Care is a detention center in Pennsylvania, US. It was part of the Kids for cash scandal in which judges were given kickbacks in exchange for imposing harsh sentences on youth offenders so that the detention centers would get business. [44]

See also

Nation specific:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juvenile delinquency</span> Illegal behavior by minors

Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, is the act of participating in unlawful behavior as a minor or individual younger than the statutory age of majority. These acts would otherwise be considered crimes if the individuals committing them were older. The term delinquent usually refers to juvenile delinquency, and is also generalised to refer to a young person who behaves an unacceptable way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incarceration in the United States</span> Form of punishment in United States law

Incarceration in the United States is one of the primary means of punishment for crime in the United States. In 2021, over five million people were under supervision by the criminal justice system, with nearly two million people incarcerated in state or federal prisons and local jails. The United States has the largest known prison population in the world. It has 5% of the world’s population while having 20% of the world’s incarcerated persons. China, with more than four times more inhabitants, has fewer persons in prison. Prison populations grew dramatically beginning in the 1970s, but began a decline around 2009, dropping 25% by year-end 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">California Division of Juvenile Justice</span> Law enforcement agency in California, USA

The California Division of Juvenile Justice (DJJ), previously known as the California Youth Authority (CYA), was a division of the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation that provided education, training, and treatment services for California's most serious youth offenders, until its closure in 2023. These youths were committed by the juvenile and criminal courts to DJJ's eleven correctional facilities, four conservation camps and two residential drug treatment programs. The DJJ provided services to juvenile offenders, ranging in age from twelve to 25, in facilities and on parole, and worked closely with law enforcement, the courts, district attorneys, public defenders, probation offices and other public and private agencies involved with the problems of youth. The DJJ underwent reorganization as required by a court agreement and the California State Legislature after widespread criticisms of conditions at its youth prisons. The agency's headquarters were in Sacramento, California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act</span>

The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 (JJDPA) is a United States federal law providing formula grants to states that follow a series of federal protections on the care and treatment of youth in the juvenile justice and criminal justice systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American juvenile justice system</span> Aspect of American justice system

The American juvenile justice system is the primary system used to handle minors who are convicted of criminal offenses. The system is composed of a federal and many separate state, territorial, and local jurisdictions, with states and the federal government sharing sovereign police power under the common authority of the United States Constitution. The juvenile justice system intervenes in delinquent behavior through police, court, and correctional involvement, with the goal of rehabilitation. Youth and their guardians can face a variety of consequences including probation, community service, youth court, youth incarceration and alternative schooling. The juvenile justice system, similar to the adult system, operates from a belief that intervening early in delinquent behavior will deter adolescents from engaging in criminal behavior as adults.

Juvenile delinquency in the United States refers to crimes committed by children or young people, particularly those under the age of eighteen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prison</span> Facility where people are kept as punishment for a crime

A prison, also known as a jail, gaol, penitentiary, detention center, correction center, correctional facility, remand center, hoosegow, and slammer, is a facility where people are imprisoned against their will and denied their liberty under the authority of the state generally as punishment for various crimes. Authorities most commonly use prisons within a criminal-justice system: people charged with crimes may be imprisoned until their trial; those who have pled or been found guilty of crimes at trial may be sentenced to a specified period of imprisonment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Youth incarceration in the United States</span>

The United States incarcerates more of its youth than any other country in the world, through the juvenile courts and the adult criminal justice system, which reflects the larger trends in incarceration practices in the United States. In 2010, approximately 70,800 juveniles were incarcerated in youth detention facilities alone. As of 2006, approximately 500,000 youth were brought to detention centers in a given year. This data does not reflect juveniles tried as adults. As of 2013, around 40% were incarcerated in privatized, for-profit facilities.

The Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services (DYRS) is the juvenile justice agency of the District of Columbia, in the United States.

The Florida Department of Juvenile Justice (FDJJ) is a state agency of Florida that operates juvenile detention centers. Its headquarters are in the Knight Building in Tallahassee.

The Maryland Department of Juvenile Services (DJS) is a state agency of Maryland, headquartered in One Center Plaza, Downtown Baltimore. DJS operates juvenile correctional facilities.

The Massachusetts Department of Youth Services (DYS) is a state agency of Massachusetts. Its administrative office is headquartered in 600 Washington Street, Boston. The agency operates the state's juvenile justice services and facilities for incarcerated children.

The Delaware Department of Services for Children, Youth, and Their Families (DSCYF) is a state agency of Delaware. It has its headquarters in the Delaware Youth and Family Center (DYFC), located in unincorporated New Castle County, near Wilmington.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Youth Detention Facility (Baltimore City)</span>

The New Youth Detention Facility in Baltimore City is a jail planned by the Maryland Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services (DPSCS). The facility is slated to be built between the 600 blocks of East Monument and East Madison Streets.

The Texas Juvenile Justice Department (TJJD) is a state agency in Texas, headquartered in the Central Services Building (CSB) in Austin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incarceration prevention in the United States</span> Methods to reduce prison populations in America

Incarceration prevention refers to a variety of methods aimed at reducing prison populations and costs while fostering enhanced social structures. Due to the nature of incarceration in the United States today caused by issues leading to increased incarceration rates, there are methods aimed at preventing the incarceration of at-risk populations.

Youth intervention is a practice within the field of youth services. This practice is designed to intervene when young people are at risk of or beginning to make poor decisions that can have lifelong negative impacts. Youth intervention is intended to support academic achievement and prevent juvenile delinquency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mendota Juvenile Treatment Center</span> Juvenile psychiatric facility In Madison, Wisconsin

Mendota Juvenile Treatment Center (MJTC) is a juvenile psychiatric facility of the Wisconsin Department of Health Services, located in the Lorenz Hall Annex on the grounds of the Mendota Mental Health Institute (MMHI) in Madison, Wisconsin. It has space for 29 patients. The inmates at Mendota usually have anti-social personality disorders who do not feel empathy, guilt, nor remorse. It uses the Mendota Juvenile Treatment Center Program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incarceration in California</span> Overview of incarceration in the U.S. state of California

Incarceration in California spans federal, state, county, and city governance, with approximately 200,000 people in confinement at any given time. An additional 55,000 people are on parole.

Linda A. Teplin is an American behavioral scientist and public health researcher. Her research focuses on the interface between mental health and the criminal justice system, criminalization of the mentally ill, and mental health needs and related health outcomes of incarcerated populations, including those in juvenile detention, jails, and prisons. Many of her published papers investigate the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, mortality, patterns of crime victimization, health service utilization, disproportionate incarceration of minorities, and HIV/AIDS risk behaviors. Her research has provided the empirical basis for changes in public health and criminal justice policy.

References

  1. 1 2 Stahl, Dean, Karen Kerchelich, and Ralph De Sola. Abbreviations Dictionary. CRC Press, 2001. 1202 Archived 14 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 23 August 2010. ISBN   0-8493-9003-6, ISBN   978-0-8493-9003-6.
  2. ↑ "Short Notes on Remand Homes (Observation Homes)". PreserveArticles.com: Preserving Your Articles for Eternity. 1 May 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
  3. ↑ Snyder, H. & Sickmund, M. (March 2006). "Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report". OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book: 93–96. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Austin, James; Kelly Dedel Johnson; Ronald Weitzer (September 2005). "Alternatives to the Secure Detention and Confinement of Juvenile Offenders". OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin (5): 1. Archived from the original on 23 February 2010. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
  5. 1 2 3 "What are the Programs and Services Provided". Juvenile Detention Laws. laws.com. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
  6. ↑ NCC.state.ne.us Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  7. 1 2 3 4 "OJJDP Model Programs Guide: Residential". OJJDP Model Programs Guide. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  8. 1 2 Gemignani, Robert J. (October 1994). "OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin": 2.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ↑ Underwood, Lee A.; Annie Phillips; Kara von Dresner; Pamela D.Knight (2006). "Critical Factors in Mental Health Programming For Juveniles in Corrections Facilities". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2 (1): 108–109. doi:10.1037/h0100771.
  10. ↑ Underwood, Lee A.; Annie Phillips; Kara von Dresner; Pamela D.Knight (2006). "Critical Factors in Mental Health Programming For Juveniles in Corrections Facilities". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2 (1): 107. doi:10.1037/h0100771.
  11. 1 2 Underwood, Lee A.; Annie Phillips; Kara von Dresner; Pamela D.Knight (2006). "Critical Factors in Mental Health Programming For Juveniles in Corrections Facilities". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2 (1): 108. doi:10.1037/h0100771.
  12. 1 2 Underwood, Lee A.; Annie Phillips; Kara von Dresner; Pamela D.Knight (2006). "Critical Factors in Mental Health Programming For Juveniles in Corrections Facilities". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2 (1): 123. doi:10.1037/h0100771.
  13. ↑ Underwood, Lee A.; Annie Phillips; Kara von Dresner; Pamela D.Knight (2006). "Critical Factors in Mental Health Programming For Juveniles in Corrections Facilities". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 2 (1): 123–125. doi:10.1037/h0100771.
  14. 1 2 Morris, Richard J.; Kristin C. Thompson (June 2008). "Juvenile Delinquency and Special Education Laws: Policy Implementation Issues and Directions for Future Research". The Journal of Correctional Education. 59 (2): 177.
  15. ↑ "Special Education in Correctional Facilities". Publications. The National Center on Education, Disability and Juvenile Justice. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Special Education in Correctional Facilities". Publications. The National Center on Education, Disability and Juvenile Justice. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
  17. 1 2 Morris, Richard J.; Kristin C. Thompson (June 2008). "Juvenile Delinquency and Special Education Laws: Policy Implementation Issues and Directions for Future Research". The Journal of Correctional Education. 59 (2): 174.
  18. ↑ Leone, Peter E. (1994). "Education Services For Youth With Disabilities in a State-Operated Juvenile Correctional System: Case Study and Analysis". The Journal of Special Education. 28 (1): 44. doi:10.1177/002246699402800104. S2CID   143082764.
  19. ↑ Morris, Richard J.; Kristin C. Thompson (June 2008). "Juvenile Delinquency and Special Education Laws: Policy Implementation Issues and Directions for Future Research". The Journal of Correctional Education. 59 (2): 175.
  20. ↑ Morris, Richard J.; Kristin C. Thompson (June 2008). "Juvenile Delinquency and Special Education Laws: Policy Implementation Issues and Directions for Future Research". The Journal of Correctional Education. 59 (2): 185.
  21. ↑ Leone, Peter E. (1994). "Education Services For Youth With Disabilities in a State-Operated Juvenile Correctional System: Case Study and Analysis". The Journal of Special Education. 28 (1): 43. doi:10.1177/002246699402800104. S2CID   143082764.
  22. ↑ journal Kennedy-Lewis, B. (2015). Second Chance or No Chance? A Case Study of One Urban Alternative Middle School. Journal of Educational Change, 16(2), 145.
  23. ↑ journal Teske, S. C. (2011). A study of zero tolerance policies in schools: A multi‐integrated systems approach to improve outcomes for adolescents. Journal of Child And Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 24(2), 88-97
  24. ↑ Hoffman, S. (2014). Zero Benefit: Estimating the Effect of Zero Tolerance Discipline Policies on Racial Disparities in School Discipline. Educational Policy, 28(1), 69.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Austin, James; Kelly Dedel Johnson; Ronald Weitzer (September 2005). "Alternatives to the Secure Detention and Confinement of Juvenile Offenders". OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin (5): 2. Archived from the original on 23 February 2010. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
  26. ↑ "Conditions of Confinement for Young Offenders". Fact Sheets. Coalition for Juvenile Justice. Archived from the original on 27 October 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  27. ↑ Eric, Licas (14 September 2024). "Brea photographer uncovers hidden history of one of California's most violent youth prisons". Los Angeles Times.
  28. ↑ JRFC Databook, accessed 22 August 2018.
  29. ↑ Leavitt, Sarah A. (1992). Neglected, Vagrant, and Viciously Inclined: The Girls of the Connecticut Industrial School, 1867–1917 (BA thesis). Wesleyan University. doi: 10.14418/wes01.1.467 .
  30. ↑ "Brief Descriptions of Connecticut State Agencies: Long Lane School". Connecticut State Library. July 2008. Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
  31. 1 2 "Juvenile Services". Connecticut Department of Children and Families. 23 August 2012. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
  32. ↑ "A Chronology of Failure A Brief History of the Connecticut Juvenile Training School". tribunedigital-thecourant. 2 August 2005. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012.
  33. ↑ Rubinsky, Cara (1 August 2005). "Rell to close Juvenile Training Center". The Day. Archived from the original on 5 April 2024 – via Google News Archive Search.
  34. ↑ "State closes Connecticut Juvenile Training School in Middletown". Connecticut Magazine. Middletown Press. 13 April 2018. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  35. ↑ "Who We Are". Department of Youth Rehabilitative Services. Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  36. 1 2 3 "DYRS Facilities". Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services. Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Youth Services Center". Department of Youth Rehabilitative Services Facilities. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  38. ↑ "New Beginnings Youth Development Center". Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services. DC.Gov: District of Columbia Government. Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "New Beginnings Youth Development Center". DYRS Facilities. Department of Youth Rehabilitative. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  40. 1 2 Pierre, Robert E. "Oak Hill Center Emptied And Its Baggage Left Behind Archived 2 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine ." The Washington Post . Friday 29 May 2009. Retrieved on 7 October 2010.
  41. 1 2 " Coffey, Claudia (29 May 2009). "New Start for Oak Hill Youth Center". My Fox DC. Laurel, Maryland. Archived from the original on 17 October 2009. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
  42. 1 2 "GR2009052900126.gif." The Washington Post . Retrieved on 7 October 2010.
  43. 1 2 3 "Maya Angelou Academy". Maya Angelou Schools. See Forever Foundation. Archived from the original on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
  44. ↑ Frank, Thomas (1 April 2009). "Thomas Frank Says 'Kids for Cash' Incentivizes the Prison Industry". The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.