Nye popularised the term in his 1990 book, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power.[2]
In this book he wrote: "when one country gets other countries to want what it wants might be called co-optive or soft power in contrast with the hard or command power of ordering others to do what it wants".[2] He further developed the concept in his 2004 book, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics.[3]
Description
Joseph Nye's 2004 book describing the concept of "soft power"
The Oxford English Dictionary records the phrase "soft power" (meaning "power (of a nation, state, alliance, etc.) deriving from economic and cultural influence, rather than coercion or military strength") from 1985.[4]Joseph Nye popularized the concept of "soft power" in the late 1980s.[5] For Nye, power is the ability to influence the behavior of others to get the outcomes you want. There are several ways one can achieve this: one can coerce others with threats; one can induce them with payments; or one can attract and co-opt them to want what one wants. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes one wants – co-opts people rather than coerces them.[2]
Soft power contrasts with "hard power" - the use of coercion and payment. Soft power can be wielded not just by states but also by all actors in international politics, such as NGOs or international institutions.[3] It is also considered by some an example of the "second face of power"[6] that indirectly allows one to obtain the outcomes one wants.[7][8] A country's soft power, according to Nye, rests on three resources: "its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as legitimate and having moral authority)."[9]
"A country may obtain the outcomes it wants in world politics because other countries – admiring its values, emulating its example, aspiring to its level of prosperity and openness – want to follow it. In this sense, it is also important to set the agenda and attract others in world politics, and not only to force them to change by threatening military force or economic sanctions. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes that you want – co-opts people rather than coerces them."[3]
Soft power resources are the assets that produce attraction, which often leads to acquiescence.[3] Nye asserts that, "Seduction is always more effective than coercion, and many values like democracy, human rights, and individual opportunities are deeply seductive."[10]Angelo Codevilla observed that an often overlooked essential aspect of soft power is that different parts of populations are attracted or repelled by different things, ideas, images, or prospects.[11] Soft power is hampered when policies, culture, or values repel others instead of attracting them.
In his book, Nye argues that soft power is a more difficult instrument for governments to wield than hard power for two reasons: many of its critical resources are outside the control of governments, and soft power tends to "work indirectly by shaping the environment for policy, and sometimes takes years to produce the desired outcomes."[10][12] The book identifies three broad categories of soft power: "culture", "political values", and "policies."
In The Future of Power (2011), Nye reiterates that soft power is a descriptive, rather than a normative, concept.[13] Therefore, soft power can be wielded for nefarious purposes. "Hitler, Stalin, and Mao all possessed a great deal of soft power in the eyes of their acolytes, but that did not make it good. It is not necessarily better to twist minds than to twist arms."[13] Nye also claims that soft power does not contradict the international relations theory of realism. "Soft power is not a form of idealism or liberalism. It is simply a form of power, one way of getting desired outcomes."[14]
Limitations of the concept
Soft power has been criticized as being ineffective by authors such as Niall Ferguson in the preface to Colossus.[citation needed]Neorealist and other rationalist and neorationalist authors (with the exception of Stephen Walt) dismiss soft power out of hand as they assert that actors in international relations respond to only two types of incentives: economic incentives and force.[citation needed]
As a concept, it can be difficult to distinguish soft power from hard power. For example, Janice Bially Mattern argues that George W. Bush's use of the phrase "you are either with us or with the terrorists" was in fact an exercise of hard power. Though military and economic force was not used to pressure other states to join its coalition, a kind of force – representational force – was used. This kind of force threatens the identity of its partners, forcing them to comply or risk being labeled as evil. This being the case, soft power is therefore not so soft.[15]
There are also recent articles about the concept's neglect of its defensive use. Since Nye's approach "mainly focuses on how to get others to do your bidding", some researchers argued that rising powers, such as China, are creating new approaches to soft power, thus using it defensively.[16]
Additionally, others have argued that more attention needs to be paid towards locating and understanding how actors' attempts at soft power can backfire, leading to reputational damage or loss, or what has been termed 'soft disempowerment'.[17]
Amit Kumar Gupta has written on what he regards as a flaw in the definition provided by Nye,[18] and has made an effort to redefine the concept. Citing Nye's definition, the author writes that, "a country's behaviour in the international platform is not in the least determined by the other parties' attraction in soft power terms. Every country weighs its interest and follows its convictions before taking any decision."[19] Gupta proposes the terms "positive soft power" and "negative soft power" to replace Nye's definition.[19]
Measurement
An initial undertaking to measure soft power through a composite index was published by the Institute for Government (IfG) and the media company Monocle in 2010.[20] The IfG-Monocle Soft Power Index, created by then IfG senior researcher Jonathan McClory, combined a range of statistical metrics and subjective panel scores to measure the soft power resources of 26 countries. The metrics were organized according to a framework of five sub-indices including culture, diplomacy, education, business/innovation, and government. The index is said to measure the soft power resources of countries, and does not translate directly into ability influence. Monocle has published an annual Soft Power Survey since then. As of 2016/17, the list is calculated using around 50 factors that indicate the use of soft power, including the number of cultural missions (primarily language schools), Olympic medals, the quality of a country's architecture and business brands.[21]
The Soft Power 30, which includes a foreword by Joseph Nye, is a ranking of countries' soft power produced and published by the media company Portland in 2015. The ranking is based on "the quality of a country's political institutions, the extent of their cultural appeal, the strength of their diplomatic network, the global reputation of their higher education system, the attractiveness of their economic model, and a country's digital engagement with the world."[22][23][24]
The Elcano Global Presence Report scores the EU first for soft presence.[25] Soft power, then, represents the third behavioral way of getting the outcomes you want. Soft power is contrasted with hard power, which has historically been the predominant realist measure of national power, through quantitative metrics such as population size, concrete military assets, or a nation's gross domestic product. But having such resources does not always produce the desired outcomes, as the United States discovered in the Vietnam War.
The success of soft power heavily depends on the actor's reputation within the international community, as well as the flow of information between actors. Thus, soft power is often associated with the rise of globalization and neoliberal international relations theory. Popular culture and mass media are regularly identified as a source of soft power,[26] as is the spread of a national language or a particular set of normative structures. More particularly, international news was found crucial in shaping the image and reputation of foreign countries. The high prominence of the US in international news, for example, has been linked to its soft power.[27] Positive news coverage was associated with positive international views, while negative news coverage with negative views.[28]
Academics have engaged in several debates around soft power. These have included:
Its usefulness (Giulio Gallarotti, Niall Ferguson, Josef Joffe, Robert Kagan, Ken Waltz, Mearsheimer vs Nye, Katzenstein, Janice Bially Mattern, Jacques Hymans, Alexander Vuving, Jan Mellisen)
How soft power and hard power interact (Giulio Gallarotti, Joseph Nye)
Whether soft power can be coercive or manipulative, (Janice Bially Mattern, Katzenstein, Duvall & Barnet vs Nye, Vuving)
Whether soft balancing is occurring (Wohlforth & Brooks vs Walt et al..)
Soft power and normative power in Europe (Ian Manners, A Ciambra, Thomas Diez, A Hyde Pryce, Richard Whitman)
How civil resistance (i.e., non-violent forms of resistance) can often involve certain uses of soft power, but remains a distinct concept (Adam Roberts, Timothy Garton Ash)
Examples
Worldwide
The Soviet Union competed with the U.S. for influence throughout the Cold War. The Soviets were engaged in a broad campaign to convince the world of the attractiveness of its Communist system. In 1945, the Soviet Union was very effective in attracting many in Europe from its resistance to Hitler, and in colonized areas around the world because of its opposition to European imperialism.[34] The Soviets also employed a substantially large public diplomacy program that included: promoting their high culture, broadcasting, disseminating information about the West, and sponsoring nuclear protests, peace movements, and youth organizations. Despite all of this, the Soviets' closed system and lack of popular culture impeded the ability of the Soviet Union to compete with the U.S. in terms of soft power.[35]
Umm Kulthum, example of Egypt's soft power in the 20th century Arab World
The United States and Europe have consistently been sources of influence and soft power.[39]European culture's art, literature, music, design, fashion, and even food have been global magnets for some time.[34] Europe and the U.S. have often claimed to support human rights and international law throughout the world. In 2012, the European Union was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for over six decades [it has] contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe."[40][41] In 2019, the U.S. has the second largest diplomatic network in the world,[42][43] the largest number of foreign journalists based in the country,[44] and is the most popular destination for international students.[45]American films, television, music, advertising, fashion, food, economic models, political culture, and literature have contributed to the Americanization of other cultures.[46]
Asia and more recently China have been working to use the potential soft power assets that are present in the admiration of their ancient cultures, arts, fashion and cuisine.[47] China is presenting itself as a defender of national sovereignty,[48] which became an issue after the NATO air campaign to oust Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and NATO's support of the rebels in Libya.[49] The Chinese are also competing with the United States to gain influence throughout the South Pacific, however some commentators have said their recent assertiveness in this region has created an appeal for nations in this region to align with the United States thus increasing U.S. soft power in this area.[50]
Soft power extends beyond the operations of government, to the activities of the private sector and to society and culture at large.[51] Soft power has gained more influence because it addresses the underlying dispositions of the people who have increasingly become more active in their governments.[11] This is true even in authoritarian countries where people and institutions are increasingly able to shape the debate.[52]
Australia
According to the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of the Commonwealth Government, Australia maintains a good reputation thanks to “its democracy, rule of law, strong economy, quality education, cutting-edge science, multiculturalism and environmental protections”, enabling to its citizens and institutions to “speak with confidence and credibility in the world stage”.[53] Education has remained central to Australia's soft power,[53][54] being one of the most recognized education powerhouses in the world with more than 700,000 international students enrolled.[55] In 2023, Australia's nation branding was ranked as the world's ninth strongest according to the Nation Brand Index, which positions Australia as an attractive place for tourism and foreign investment:[56] it perceives the world's eighth largest tourism receipts[57] and it is the 16th largest FDI receptor.[58]
Middle East
The Middle East has been an area in which soft power has been employed by both regional and outside actors. Small states, such as Qatar, frequently employ soft-power strategies, including the use of al-Jazeera and the hosting of sports events, in their foreign policymaking.[59] Outside powers, such as the United States or China, also employ soft power in terms of expanding their influence across the Middle East.[60][61] Competition amongst states of the Middle East often involves the use of soft power, as in the case of Egyptian-Israeli rivalry over Africa,[62] or Saudi-Iranian relations.[63]
China's traditional culture has been a source of attraction, building on which it has created several hundred Confucius Institutes around the world to teach its language and culture. The enrollment of foreign students in China has increased from 36,000 a decade before to at least 240,000 in 2010.[64] China is the most popular country in Asia for international students,[65] the leading destination globally for Anglophone African students,[66] and the second most popular education powerhouse in the world.[67] China's Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank has attracted many Western countries to join.[68] China has the largest diplomatic network in the world, overtaking the US in 2019.[43][42] The provision of Chinese medical aid during the COVID-19 pandemic has been dubbed "facemask diplomacy".[69][70]
The supersonic jet Concorde arrives in Ivory Coast, a former French colony, in 1978. Concorde was often used as a symbol of French prestige and a vessel of soft power.
France
According to a 2018 study in the American Sociological Review, France had greater influence on European geopolitics than Britain in the 18th century because of its cultural and symbolic power.[72]
Germany
The annual soft power rankings by Monocle magazine and the Institute for Government ranks 30 countries which "best attract favor from other nations through culture, sport, cuisine, design, diplomacy and beyond." Monocle magazine said: "Merkel may be painted as a stern taskmaster but it seems she has a softer side, or the country she leads does." It said Germany's rise as a soft power should not come as a surprise. "The country is traditionally excellent at pursuing its ideas, values and aims using diplomatic, cultural and economic tools," it said. "By quietly doing the simple things well it is a country that has become a global power and the rest of us can feel comfortable with that." Germans had been understandably wary about depicting a dominant image abroad, the magazine added, but it said that the country's rise should not make everyone else feel uncomfortable.[73][74][75] In 2017, Germany had the eighth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42]
The five pillars of India's soft power—dignity, dialogue, shared prosperity, regional and global security, and cultural and civilizational links—are strategically employed to enhance its global influence.[76] On May 21, 2021, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) announced plans to use Indian cuisine as a form of soft power, emphasizing its role in showcasing India's cultural heritage. [77] Additionally, the soft power of India in Africa has been reflected in cultural exchanges, including the influence of Bollywood movies, the spread of yoga practices, and the involvement of the Indian diaspora. [78]
Italy
The elements of Italian soft culture are its art, music, fashion, design, and food. Italy was the birthplace of opera,[79] and for generations the language of opera was Italian. Popular tastes in drama in Italy have long favored comedy; the improvisational style known as the Commedia dell'arte began in Italy in the mid-16th century[80] and is still performed today. Before being exported to France and Russia, Ballet also originated in Italy. The country boasts several world-famous cities: Rome was the ancient capital of the Roman Empire and seat of the Pope of the Catholic Church. Rome is generally considered one of the "cradles of Western civilization and Christian culture".[81][82][83]Florence was the heart of the Renaissance, a period of great achievements in the arts[84] which marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity. Other important cities include Turin, one of the world's great centers of automobile engineering. Milan is one of the "Big Four" fashion capitals. Venice, with its intricate canal system and history of seafaring, attracts tourists from all over the world especially during the Venetian Carnival and the Venice Biennale. Italy is home to the greatest number of UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites (59) to date.[85] In 2019, Italy had the ninth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42] Italy is the fifth most visited country in the World.
"Cool Japan" is a concept coined in 2002 as an expression of Japan's popular culture. The concept has been adopted by the Japanese government as well as trade bodies seeking to exploit the commercial capital of the country's culture industry.[86][87] It has been described as a form of soft power, "the ability to indirectly influence behavior or interests through cultural or ideological means."[88] In a 2002 article in the journal Foreign Policy titled "Japan's Gross National Cool", Douglas McGray wrote of Japan "reinventing superpower" as its cultural influence expanded internationally despite the economic and political problems of the "lost decade." Surveying youth culture and the role of J-pop, manga, anime, video game, fashion, film, automobiles, consumer electronics, architecture, and cuisine, McGray highlighted Japan's considerable soft power, posing the question of what message the country might project. He also argued that Japan's recession may even have boosted its national cool, due to the partial discrediting of erstwhile rigid social hierarchies and big-business career paths.[89] In 2015, during remarks welcoming Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to the White House, President Barack Obama thanked Japan for its cultural contributions to the United States by saying:
This visit is a celebration of the ties of friendship and family that bind our peoples. I first felt it when I was 6 years old when my mother took me to Japan. I felt it growing up in Hawaii, like communities across our country, home to so many proud Japanese Americans... Today is also a chance for Americans, especially our young people, to say thank you for all the things we love from Japan. Like karate and karaoke. Manga and anime. And, of course, emojis.[90]
In 2017, Japan had the fifth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42] Anime, manga and Japanese films are considered to be soft power. In April 2023, the Japan Business Federation laid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth of Japan by further promoting the contents industry abroad, primarily anime, manga and video games, for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to Japan to work, and to link with the tourism sector to help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories. The federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of Japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years.[91][92] Today, the culture of Japan stands as one of the most influential cultures around the world, mainly because of the global reach of its popular culture.[93][94][95][96][97][98]
Russia
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: this section may have to be updated due to the impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(November 2023)
Russia has been developing its soft power by investing in various public diplomacy instruments throughout the 2000s[99] but the term was first used in an official document in 2010 as President Medvedev approved an Addendum to the national Foreign Policy Concept. The term was not defined but it was described as related to cultural diplomacy.[100] In 2013, the term appeared in a new version of the Foreign Policy Concept where the soft power was defined as "a comprehensive toolkit for achieving foreign policy objectives building on civil society potential, information, cultural and other methods and technologies alternative to traditional diplomacy."[101] In 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin was named Time Person of the Year. In 2013, he was named most powerful person by Forbes magazine.[102] In 2015, Russia led the creation of the Eurasian Economic Union.[103] In 2017, Russia had the fourth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42] In the wake of the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018, the BBC reported that "Its extensive diplomatic network reflects both its imperial history as a great power in the 19th Century, as well as its Cold War posture. It has a multitude of posts in Eastern Europe and former communist allies including China, Vietnam, Cuba and Angola, as well as legacies of the former USSR in Africa and Asia. The size of its network reflects the extent of its undiminished global ambition."[104]
As is clear with the recent rise of Psy's "Gangnam Style", the Hallyu-wave and Korean pop music, Korean culture is making its mark on the world. —United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon[106]
"Hallyu", also known as the "Korean Wave", is a neologism referring to the spread of South Korean culture since the late 1990s. According to a Washington Post reporter, the spread of South Korean entertainment has led to higher sales of other goods and services such as food, clothing, and Korean language classes.[107] Besides increasing the amount of exports, the Korean Wave is used by the government as a soft power tool to engage with the masses of young people all over the world.[108][109]
In 2012, the BBC's country rating poll revealed that public opinion of South Korea has been improving every year since the first rating poll for the country was conducted in 2009. In several countries such as Taiwan, India, France and Japan, public opinion about South Korea is generally positive. The report cited culture and tradition as among the most important factors contributing to positive perceptions of South Korea.[111] This comes alongside a rapid growth in the total value of cultural exports which rose to US$4.2 billion in 2011.[112][113] And as of 2021, South Korea's cultural content industry has exports of $12.45 billion.[114]
First driven by the spread of Korean dramas televised across East, South and Southeast Asia during its initial stages, the Korean Wave evolved from a regional development into a global phenomenon due to the proliferation of Korean pop (K-pop) music videos on YouTube.[115][116] Developed far beyond YouTube, the most successful K-pop band, BTS, is valued to be worth US$5 billion, generating impressive revenue for South Korea.[117] Currently, the spread of the Korean Wave to other regions of the world is most visibly seen among teenagers and young adults in East Asia, North American, the Middle East, Latin America, and immigrantenclaves of the Western world.[118][119][120]
The main power of the Age of Discovery, Spain began the conquest of the New World in 1492, giving rise to the Spanish Empire. Controlling vast portions of the Americas, parts of Africa, various territories in Asia, Oceania, as well as territory in other parts of Europe, the Spanish Empire became, in conjunction with the Portuguese, the first empire to achieve a global scale and one of the largest empires in history. The Hispanic culture is the legacy of the vast and prolonged Spanish Empire, whose cultural background is primarily associated with Spain, regardless of racial or geographical differences. The whole sense of identity of the Hispanic population and the Hispanophones is sometimes referred by the term Hispanidad (Hispanicity).
The foreign relations of the United States has long had a great deal of soft power.[127] Examples of the impact include Franklin D. Roosevelt's four freedoms in Europe to motivate the Allies in World War II; people behind the Iron Curtain listening to the government's foreign propaganda arm Radio Free Europe; newly liberated Afghans in 2001 asking for a copy of the Bill of Rights and young Iranians today surreptitiously watching banned American videos and satellite television broadcasts in the privacy of their homes.[10] America's early commitment to religious toleration, for example, was a powerful element of its overall appeal to potential immigrants; and American aid in the reconstruction of Europe after World War II was a propaganda victory to show off the prosperity and the generosity of the people of the United States.
American culture has been embraced around the world for many decades. Due to America's superpower status, American culture is often seen as "hegemonic". American dominance and the popularization of American media largely contributed to the English language (particularly American English) becoming the global lingua franca. American music has had a wide influence over the development of music around the globe. American architecture and urban planning, American political and economic philosophy, and American film and television have played strong roles in shaping both western and non-western culture. American cuisine, fashion trends, literature, theatre, and dance have also widely influenced global culture of the modern era, and various subcultures that were born in the United States, such as the hippie, hip-hop, punk rock, rock and roll, greaser, grunge, and Beatnik movements (among others), have influenced mainstream culture of the 20th and 21st centuries. American technology and social media companies hold a monopoly over the world's digital space.
Studies of American broadcasting into the Soviet bloc, and testimonials from Czech president Václav Havel, Polish president Lech Wałęsa, and Russian president Boris Yeltsin, support that soft power efforts of the United States and its allies during the Cold War were ultimately successful in creating the favorable conditions that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.[128]
Satellite TV is actively promoting American soft power in the Arab world in ways that the United States has been incapable of doing. The launch of the Arabic-language Alhurra satellite channel in early 2004 to provide news and entertainment in ways more beneficial to the U.S., marked an important turning point in U.S. public diplomacy development. Though it calls itself the largest Arabic-language news organization in the world, the Virginia-based Alhurra lacks the cachet and brand recognition of Al Jazeera, but its balanced presentation of news has earned it a small but significant viewership. Controversial innovations in radio broadcasting that target young mass audiences through a mix of light news and mild American popular music – Radio Sawa in Arabic and Radio Farda in Persian – have captured a substantial market share in their target regions.[12]
In politics, hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most immediately effective when imposed by one political body upon another of less military and/or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history.
In international relations, power is defined in several different ways. Material definitions of state power emphasize economic and military power. Other definitions of power emphasize the ability to structure and constitute the nature of social relations between actors. Power is an attribute of particular actors in their interactions, as well as a social process that constitutes the social identities and capacities of actors.
A middle power is a state that is not a superpower or a great power, but still exerts influence and plays a significant role in international relations. These countries often possess certain capabilities, such as strong economies, advanced technologies, and diplomatic influence, that allow them to have a voice in global affairs. Middle powers are typically seen as bridge-builders between larger powers, using their diplomatic skills to mediate conflicts and promote cooperation on international issues.
K-pop, short for Korean popular music, is a form of popular music originating in South Korea. It includes styles and genres from around the world, such as pop, hip hop, R&B, rock, jazz, gospel, reggae, electronic dance, folk, country, disco, and classical on top of its traditional Korean music roots. The term "K-pop" became popular in the 2000s, especially in the international context. The Korean term for domestic pop music is gayo, which is still widely used within South Korea. While "K-pop" can refer to all popular music or pop music from South Korea, the term is often used when referring to artists associated with the entertainment and idol industry in the country, regardless of the genre of music output.
Joseph Samuel Nye Jr. is an American political scientist. He and Robert Keohane co-founded the international relations theory of neoliberalism, which they developed in their 1977 book Power and Interdependence. Together with Keohane, he developed the concepts of asymmetrical and complex interdependence. They also explored transnational relations and world politics in an edited volume in the 1970s. More recently, he pioneered the theory of soft power. His notion of "smart power" became popular with the use of this phrase by members of the Clinton Administration and the Obama Administration.
Cultural diplomacy is a type of soft power that includes the "exchange of ideas, information, art, language and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding". The purpose of cultural diplomacy is for the people of a foreign nation to develop an understanding of the nation's ideals and institutions in an effort to build broad support for economic and political objectives. In essence "cultural diplomacy reveals the soul of a nation", which in turn creates influence. Public diplomacy has played an important role in advancing national security objectives.
The Korean Wave or Hallyu is a cultural phenomenon in which the global popularity of South Korean popular culture has dramatically risen since the 1990s. Worldwide interest in Korean culture has been led primarily by the spread of K-pop, K-dramas and films, with keystone successes including K-pop group BTS, television series Squid Game (2021), and Oscar-winning film Parasite (2019). The Korean Wave has been recognized as a form of soft power and as an important economic asset for South Korea, generating revenue through both exports and tourism.
The Asian Century is the projected 21st-century dominance of Asian politics and culture, assuming certain demographic and economic trends persist. The concept of Asian Century parallels the characterisation of the 19th century as Britain's Imperial Century, and the 20th century as the American Century.
Nation branding aims to measure, build and manage the reputation of countries. In the book Diplomacy in a Globalizing World: Theories and Practices, the authors define nation branding as "the application of corporate marketing concepts and techniques to countries, in the interests of enhancing their reputation in international relations." Many nations try to make brands in order to build relationships between different actors that are not restricted to nations. It extends to public and private sectors in a nation and helps with nationalism. States also want to participate in multilateral projects. Some approaches applied, such as an increasing importance on the symbolic value of products, have led countries to emphasize their distinctive characteristics. The branding and image of a nation-state "and the successful transference of this image to its exports - is just as important as what they actually produce and sell." This is also referred to as country-of-origin effect.
Japanese popular culture includes Japanese cinema, cuisine, television programs, anime, manga, video games, music, and doujinshi, all of which retain older artistic and literary traditions; many of their themes and styles of presentation can be traced to traditional art forms. Contemporary forms of popular culture, much like the traditional forms, are not only forms of entertainment but also factors that distinguish contemporary Japan from the rest of the modern world. There is a large industry of music, films, and the products of a huge comic book industry, among other forms of entertainment. Game centers, bowling alleys, and karaoke parlors are well-known hangout places for teens while older people may play shogi or go in specialized parlors. Since the end of the US occupation of Japan in 1952, Japanese popular culture has been influenced by American media. However, rather than being dominated by American products, Japan localised these influences by appropriating and absorbing foreign influences into local media industries. Today, Japanese popular culture stands as one of the most prominent and influential popular cultures around the world.
East Asia is a geographical and cultural region of Asia including China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. Additionally, Hong Kong and Macau are the two special administrative regions of China. The economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are among the world's largest and most prosperous. East Asia borders North Asia to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To its east is the Pacific Ocean.
In international relations, the term smart power refers to the combination of hard power and soft power strategies. It is defined by the Center for Strategic and International Studies as "an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions of all levels to expand one's influence and establish legitimacy of one's action."
Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of state, intergovernmental, or non-governmental institutions intended to influence events in the international system.
Full spectrum diplomacy is a combination of traditional, government-to-government diplomacy with the many components of public diplomacy as well as the integration of these two functions with other instruments of statecraft. The term was coined by John Lenczowski, founder and president of The Institute of World Politics in Washington, D.C. in his book Full Spectrum Diplomacy and Grand Strategy: Reforming the Structure and Culture of U.S. Foreign Policy which was released in May, 2011.
Cool Japan refers to the aspects of Japanese culture that non-Japanese people perceive as "cool". After the success of "Cool Britannia," the Japanese government started using the phrase. The Cool Japan strategy is part of Japan's overall brand strategy, aiming to disseminate Japan's attractiveness and allure to the world. The target of Cool Japan "encompasses everything from games, manga, anime, and other forms of content, fashion, commercial products, Japanese cuisine, and traditional culture to robots, eco-friendly technologies, and other high-tech industrial products".
Culinary diplomacy, gastrodiplomacy or food diplomacy is a type of cultural diplomacy, which itself is a subset of public diplomacy. Its basic premise is that "the easiest way to win hearts and minds is through the stomach". Official government-sponsored culinary diplomacy programs have been established in Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Lebanon, Peru, Israel, the United States, Cambodia, Japan, and Nordic countries.
The term public diplomacy was first coined and used by Edmund Gullion in 1965 and the concept developed gradually. More recently, the definition of public diplomacy differs according to different authors. Taehwan Kim in his article "Paradigm Shift in Diplomacy: A Conceptual Model for Korea's 'New Public Diplomacy'" defines it as "a diplomatic practice or field of academic research which includes non-conventional actors to promote diplomacy of the people". As the importance of public diplomacy increases, South Korea is putting more efforts to engage in the new trend of diplomacy. Muzaffar S. Abduazimov in his article "Public Diplomacy: Reappraising the South Korean Case through an Evolutionary Approach" presents four evolutionary periods of South Korean public diplomacy: origins, diversification, polycentrism, and institutionalization (2011–present).
Cultural relations are reciprocal, non-coercive transnational interactions between two or more cultures, encompassing a range of activities that are conducted both by state and non-state actors within the space of cultural and civil society. The overall outcomes of cultural relations are greater connectivity, better mutual understanding, more and deeper relationships, mutually beneficial transactions and enhanced sustainable dialogue between states, peoples, non-state actors and cultures.
The soft power of China is the indirect and non-military influence of the People's Republic of China that can be observed outside the country around the world. While soft power as a concept can be summarized as "get others to do your bidding" without resorting to hard power, it has been argued that the Chinese government uses a different approach to "get others to stop harming your image" which is more in line with its domestic policies.
Italian soft power, the capacity of Italy to influence other countries and cultures without using coercive means has evolved and changed over time with modern Italy manifesting soft power primarily through Italian cultural heritage, language, cuisine, and diplomacy. Historically, Fascist Italy employed soft power through Italian cultural heritage, from the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. Joseph Nye defined soft power as the ability of a country to persuade others to do what it wants without force or coercion. Unlike hard power, which involves military and economic strength. Italy has been dubbed a "soft power superpower".
↑ Nye, Joseph S. (16 March 2004). Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics. New York: PublicAffairs. p.ix, xi. ISBN9781586482251. Retrieved 16 March 2023. [...] I had coined the term 'soft power' a decade or so earlier. [...] I first developed the concept of 'soft power' in Bound to Lead, a book I published in 1990 [...].
↑ Sobrinho, Blasco José (2001). Signs, Solidarities, and Sociology: Charles S. Peirce and the Pragmatics of Globalization. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p.115. ISBN9780847691791. Retrieved 16 March 2023. [...] the notion of a 'second face of power'" — less 'obvious' to empirical observation — introduced in 1962 by Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz in 'The Two Faces of Power.' The views of Bachrach and Baratz, presented comprehensively in their 1970 book Power and Poverty drew [...] upon post-empiricist (post-positivist) philosophy of science to argue that [...] social science should consider those aspects of political life that are covert and 'nonobvious.' [...] Bachrach and Baratz put forward the concept of the 'nondecision,' which they defined as 'a decision that results in suppression or thwarting of a latent or manifest challenge to the values or interests of the decision-maker.'
↑ Mattern, Mark (2006). Putting Ideas to Work: A Practical Introduction to Political Thought. Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p.372. ISBN9780742548909. Retrieved 16 March 2023. The exercise of the second face of power often occurs in the form of a nonaction or nonbehavior by the policy makers . Unlike the first face of power , in which A makes B do something that B would not otherwise do , in the second face of power A prevents B from doing something that B would like to do.
1 2 Angelo M. Codevilla, "Political Warfare: A Set of Means for Achieving Political Ends", in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008).
1 2 Lord, Carnes, "Public Diplomacy and Soft Power", in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008.) pp. 59–71.
↑ Babiracki, Patryk (2015). Soviet soft power in Poland: culture and the making of Stalin's new empire, 1943-1957. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN9781469623085. OCLC911173017.
↑ Kirk, John M.; Erisman, H. Michael (2009). Cuban medical internationalism: origins, evolution, and goals (1sted.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-1403983725. OCLC248348330.
↑ Friedberg, Aaron L. A Contest for Supremacy: China, America and the Struggle for Mastery in Asia, New York: Norton Publishing, 2011. p. 200
↑ Lord, Carnes, "Public Diplomacy and Soft Power", in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008) p. 60.
↑ "Obama sets off on farewell trip to Europe in shadow of president-elect". Reuters. 14 November 2016. Archived from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016. As the Americans see it, Merkel – and certainly not the vainglorious European commission president, Jean-Claude Juncker – runs the EU. It is Merkel who negotiated the Minsk deal with Russia that defused the Ukraine crisis. She knows Vladimir Putin better than any other western leader does. It is Merkel who took the lead on Syrian refugees and the eurozone crisis.
↑ Amb (Retd) Bhaswati Mukherjee, "India's Culture Diplomacy and Soft Power," Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, October 18, 2019, Published online
↑ Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, .
↑ H.H.S. Viswanathan, "India's Soft Power Diplomacy," Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, September 04, 2019, Published online
↑ "Commedia dell'arte". Treccani, il portale del sapere (in Italian). Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 24 Jul 2012.
↑ Beretta, Silvio (2017). Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics, Society, and International Relations. Springer. p.320. ISBN9783319296258.
↑ "Korea to turn hallyu into industry". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2013. To prevent anti-Korean sentiment, the government will offer incentives for production companies or broadcasters planning to jointly produce movies or dramas with Chinese companies.
↑ Watts, Carl P. (2007). "Pax Britannica". In Hodge, Carl C. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800-1914. Vol.2. Greenwood Press. p.3. Archived from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2018-04-05. it left many legacies, including widespread use of the English language, belief in Protestant religion, economic globalization, modern precepts of law and order, and representative democracy.
↑ Nye, Joseph S. (2010). "The future of soft power in US foreign policy". Soft Power and US Foreign Policy. Routledge. pp.16–23.
↑ Carnes Lord, "Public Diplomacy and Soft Power", in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008)
Gallarotti, Giulio (2010). Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism, NY: Cambridge University Press. How hard and soft power can be combined to optimize national power.
Kurlantzick, Joshua (2007). Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power Is Transforming the World, Yale University Press. Analysis of China's use of soft power to gain influence in the world's political arena.
Lukes, Steven (2007). "Power and the Battle For Hearts and Minds: On the Bluntness of Soft Power", in Berenskoetter, Felix and M.J. Williams, eds. (2007), Power in World Politics, Routledge.
Mattern, Janice Bially (2006). "Why Soft Power Isn't So Soft", in Berenskoetter & Williams (see under "Lukes")
McCormick, John (2007). The European Superpower, Palgrave Macmillan. Argues that the European Union has used soft power effectively to emerge as an alternative and as a competitor to the heavy reliance of the US on hard power.
Nye, Joseph (2007). "Notes For a Soft Power Research Agenda", in Berenskoetter & Williams (see under "Lukes")
Nye, Joseph (2008). The Powers to Lead, NY Oxford University Press.
Nye, Joseph S. (2 January 2021). "Soft power: the evolution of a concept". Journal of Political Power. 14 (1): 196–208. doi:10.1080/2158379X.2021.1879572.
Onuf, Nicholas (2 January 2017). "The power of metaphor/the metaphor of power". The Journal of International Communication. 23 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1080/13216597.2016.1231699.
Parmar, Inderjeet and Michael Cox, eds. (2010). Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Routledge.
Rothman, Steven B. (2011). "Revising the soft power concept: what are the means and mechanisms of soft power?". Journal of Political Power. 4 (1): 49–64. doi:10.1080/2158379X.2011.556346.
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