Political system

In political science, a political system means the form of political organization that can be observed, recognised or otherwise declared by a society or state. ^[1]

It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comprizes the governmental legal and economic system, social and cultural system, and other state and government specific systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should be.

Along with a basic sociological and socio-anthropological classification, political systems can be classified on a social-cultural axis relative to the liberal values prevalent in the Western world, where the spectrum is represented as a continuum between political systems recognized as democracies, totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes, with a variety of hybrid regimes; ^{[2] [3]} and monarchies may be also included as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three. ^{[4] [5]}

Definition

According to David Easton, "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society". ^[6] Political system refers broadly to the process by which laws are made and public resources allocated in society, and to the relationships among those involved in making these decisions. ^[7]

Basic classification

Social anthropologists generally recognize several kinds of political systems, often differentiating between ones that they consider uncentralized and ones they consider centralized. ^[8]

• Uncentralized systems
  • Band society
    • Small family group, no larger than an extended family or clan; it has been defined as consisting of no more than 30 to 50 individuals.
    • A band can cease to exist if only a small group walks out.
  • Tribe
    • Generally larger, consisting of many families. Tribes have more social institutions, such as a chief or elders.
    • More permanent than bands. Many tribes are subdivided into bands.
• Centralized governments
  • Chiefdom
    • More complex than a tribe or a band society, and less complex than a state or a civilization
    • Characterized by pervasive inequality and centralization of authority.
    • A single lineage/family of the elite class becomes the ruling elite of the chiefdom
    • Complex chiefdoms have two or even three tiers of political hierarchy.
    • "An autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief" ^[9]
  • Sovereign state
    • A sovereign state is a state with a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states.
• Supranational political systems
  • Supranational political systems are created by independent nations to reach a common goal or gain strength from forming an alliance.
• Empires
  • Empires are widespread states consisting of people of different ethnicities under a single rule. Empires - such as the Romans, or British - often made considerable progress in ways of political structures, creating and building city infrastructures, and maintaining civility within the diverse communities. Because of the intricate organization of the empires, they were often able to hold a large majority of power on a universal level.
• Leagues
  • Leagues are international organizations composed of states coming together for a single common purpose. In this way, leagues are different from empires, as they only seek to fulfil a single goal. Often leagues are formed on the brink of a military or economic downfall. Meetings and hearings are conducted in a neutral location with representatives of all involved nations present.

Social political science

Further information: List of forms of government

The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds power within the relationship between the government and its people and how the government’s power is used. According to Yale professor Juan José Linz, there are three main types of political systems today: democracies, totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes (with hybrid regimes). ^{[3] [10]} Another modern classification system includes monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three. ^[4] Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism. ^{[11] [12] [3] [13]}

Democracy

Further information: Types of democracy

Democracy (from Ancient Greek: δημοκρατία, romanized: dēmokratía, dêmos 'people' and krátos 'rule') ^[14] is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. ^{[15] [16] [17]} Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitive elections while more expansive or maximalist definitions link democracy to guarantees of civil liberties and human rights in addition to competitive elections. ^{[18] [19] [17]}

Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political status quo , and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and the rule of law. ^{[20] [21]} Authoritarian regimes may be either autocratic or oligarchic and may be based upon the rule of a party, the military, or the concentration of power in a single person. ^{[22] [23]} States that have a blurred boundary between democracy and authoritarianism have sometimes been characterized as "hybrid democracies", "hybrid regimes" or "competitive authoritarian" states. ^{[24] [25] [26]}

Totalitarian

Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sphere and the private sphere of society. In the field of political science, totalitarianism is the extreme form of authoritarianism, wherein all political power is held by a dictator. This figure controls the national politics and peoples of the nation with continual propaganda campaigns that are broadcast by state-controlled and state-aligned private mass communications media. ^[27]

Monarchy

A monarchy is a hereditary form of government in which political power is legally passed on to the family members of the monarch, a head of state who rules for life. ^[28] While monarchs gain their power depending on specific succession laws, they can also gain their authority via election. ^[29]

Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies, notably at the end of World War I. ^{[30] [31]} As of 2024 ^[update] , forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there is a range of sub-national monarchical entities. Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic. ^[31]

Hybrid

Further information: Democratization and Democratic backsliding

A hybrid regime ^[a] is a type of political system often created as a result of an incomplete democratic transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). ^[b] Hybrid regimes are categorized as having a combination of autocratic features with democratic ones and can simultaneously hold political repressions and regular elections. ^[b] According to some definitions and measures, hybrid regimes are commonly found in developing countries with abundant natural resources such as petro-states. ^{[41] [39] [42]} Although these regimes experience civil unrest, they may be relatively stable and tenacious for decades at a time. ^[b] There has been a rise in hybrid regimes since the end of the Cold War. ^{[43] [44]}

The term hybrid regime arises from a polymorphic view of political regimes that oppose the dichotomy of autocracy or democracy. ^[45] Modern scholarly analysis of hybrid regimes focuses attention on the decorative nature of democratic institutions (elections do not lead to a change of power, different media broadcast the government point of view and the opposition in parliament votes the same way as the ruling party, among others), ^[46] from which it is concluded that democratic backsliding, a transition to authoritarianism is the most prevalent basis of hybrid regimes. ^{[b] [47]} Some scholars also contend that hybrid regimes may imitate a full dictatorship. ^{[48] [49]}

See also

• Political structure
• Polity
• Systems theory in political science
• Tractatus Politicus
• Voting system

Notes

1. Scholars use a variety of terms to encompass the "grey zones" between full autocracies and full democracies. ^[32] Such terms include: competitive authoritarianism, semi-authoritarianism, hybrid authoritarianism, electoral authoritarianism, liberal autocracy, delegative democracy, illiberal democracy, guided democracy, semi-democracy, deficient democracy, defective democracy, and hybrid democracy. ^{[33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40]}
2. Debates over what can be called "hybrid" still exist, see #Definition section for details.

References

1. "Political system | Types, Components, Functions, & Facts | Britannica".
2. Dobratz, B.A. (2015). Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology. Taylor & Francis. p. 47. ISBN   978-1-317-34529-9 . Retrieved Apr 30, 2023.
3. Juan José Linz (2000). Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. Lynne Rienner Publisher. p. 143. ISBN   978-1-55587-890-0. OCLC   1172052725.
4. Ginny Garcia-Alexander; Hyeyoung Woo; Matthew J. Carlson (3 November 2017). Social Foundations of Behavior for the Health Sciences. Springer. pp. 137–. ISBN   978-3-319-64950-4. OCLC   1013825392.
5. "14.2 Types of Political Systems". 8 April 2016. Archived from the original on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
6. Easton, David. (1971). The political system: an inquiry into the state of political science. Knopf. OCLC   470276419.
7. "Political System | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
8. Haviland, W.A. (2003). Anthropology: Tenth Edition. Wadsworth:Belmont, CA.
9. Carneiro, Robert L. (2011). "The Chiefdom: Precursor of the State". In Jones, Grant D.; Kautz, Robert R. (eds.). The Transition to Statehood in the New World. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–79. ISBN   978-0-521-17269-1.
10. Jonathan Michie, ed. (3 February 2014). Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. p. 95. ISBN   978-1-135-93226-8.
11. Allan Todd; Sally Waller (10 September 2015). Allan Todd; Sally Waller (eds.). History for the IB Diploma Paper 2 Authoritarian States (20th Century). Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–. ISBN   978-1-107-55889-2.
12. Ezrow & Frantz 2011, pp. 14–17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEzrowFrantz2011 (help)
13. Sondrol, P. C. (2009). "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators: A Comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo Stroessner" . Journal of Latin American Studies. 23 (3): 599–620. doi:10.1017/S0022216X00015868. JSTOR   157386. S2CID   144333167.
14. "Democracy". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
15. Schwartzberg, Melissa (2014). "Democracy". The Encyclopedia of Political Thought. pp. 851–862. doi:10.1002/9781118474396.wbept0248. ISBN   978-1-4051-9129-6.
16. "Democracy | Definition, History, Meaning, Types, Examples, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023-08-16. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
17. Przeworski, Adam (2024). "Who Decides What Is Democratic?" . Journal of Democracy. 35 (3): 5–16. doi:10.1353/jod.2024.a930423. ISSN   1086-3214.
18. Dahl, Robert A.; Shapiro, Ian; Cheibub, Jose Antonio (2003). The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. p. 31. ISBN   978-0-262-54147-3.
19. Møller, Jørgen; Skaaning, Svend-Erik (Jan 2013). "Regime Types and Democratic Sequencing". Journal of Democracy. 24 (1): 142–155. doi:10.1353/jod.2013.0010. ISSN   1045-5736. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024.
20. Kalu, Kalu N. (2019). A Functional Theory of Government, Law, and Institutions. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 161–. ISBN   978-1-4985-8703-7. OCLC   1105988740.
21. Cerutti, Furio (2017). Conceptualizing Politics: An Introduction to Political Philosophy. Routledge. p. 17. Political scientists have outlined elaborated typologies of authoritarianism, from which it is not easy to draw a generally accepted definition; it seems that its main features are the non-acceptance of conflict and plurality as normal elements of politics, the will to preserve the status quo and prevent change by keeping all political dynamics under close control by a strong central power, and lastly, the erosion of the rule of law, the division of powers, and democratic voting procedures.
22. Ezrow, Natasha M.; Frantz, Erica (2011). Dictators and Dictatorships: Understanding Authoritarian Regimes and Their Leaders. Continuum. p. 17.
23. Lai, Brian; Slater, Dan (2006). "Institutions of the Offensive: Domestic Sources of Dispute Initiation in Authoritarian Regimes, 1950–1992". American Journal of Political Science. 50 (1): 113–126. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00173.x. JSTOR   3694260.
24. Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. (2010). Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Problems of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511781353. ISBN   978-0-521-88252-1. Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
25. Diamond, Larry (2002). "Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes" . Journal of Democracy. 13 (2): 21–35. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0025. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   154815836. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
26. Gunitsky, Seva (2015). "Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics" . Ranking the World: Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance. Cambridge University Press: 112–150. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316161555.006. ISBN   978-1-107-09813-8. SSRN   2506195.
27. Conquest, Robert (1999). Reflections on a Ravaged Century. Norton. pp. 73–74. ISBN   0393048187.
28. Spellman, W. M. (2001). Monarchies 1000-2000. Reaktion Books. ISBN   978-1-86189-087-0.
29. "The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth". In Our Time. 14 October 2021. BBC Radio 4 . Retrieved 29 March 2023.
30. Political Systems, Structures, and Functions. Britannica Educational. June 2012. ISBN   978-1-61530-747-0.
31. Kimizuka, Naotaka (July 2024). Constitutional Monarchy of the Twenty-First Century. Springer. ISBN   978-981-97-4327-8.
32. Gagné, Jean-François (Mar 10, 2015), Hybrid Regimes, Oxford University Press (OUP), doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0167
33. Plattner, Marc F. (1969-12-31). "Is Democracy in Decline?". kipdf.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
34. "Hybrid Concepts and the Concept of Hybridity". European Consortium for Political Research. 2019-09-07. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
35. Urribarri, Raul A. Sanchez (2011). "Courts between Democracy and Hybrid Authoritarianism: Evidence from the Venezuelan Supreme Court" . Law & Social Inquiry. 36 (4). Wiley: 854–884. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01253.x. ISSN   0897-6546. JSTOR   41349660. S2CID   232400805. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
36. Göbel, Christian (2011). "Semiauthoritarianism". 21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 258–266. doi:10.4135/9781412979351.n31. ISBN   9781412969017.
37. Tlemcani, Rachid (2007-05-29). "Electoral Authoritarianism". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
38. "What is Hybrid Democracy?". Digital Society School. 2022-05-19. Archived from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
39. Zinecker, Heidrun (2009). "Regime-Hybridity in Developing Countries: Achievements and Limitations of New Research on Transitions" . International Studies Review. 11 (2). [Oxford University Press, Wiley, The International Studies Association]: 302–331. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00850.x. ISSN   1521-9488. JSTOR   40389063. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
40. "Index". Dem-Dec. 2017-09-23. Archived from the original on 2022-11-21. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
41. Croissant, A.; Kailitz, S.; Koellner, P.; Wurster, S. (2015). Comparing autocracies in the early Twenty-first Century: Volume 1: Unpacking Autocracies - Explaining Similarity and Difference. Taylor & Francis. p. 212. ISBN   978-1-317-70018-0. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.
42. Carothers, Christopher (2018). "The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism" . Journal of Democracy. 29 (4): 129–135. doi:10.1353/jod.2018.0068. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   158234306.
43. Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan (2002). "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism". Journal of Democracy. 13 (2). Project Muse: 51–65. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   6711009.
44. "Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War". Department of Political Science. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
45. "Hybrid Regimes". obo. Archived from the original on 2019-07-29. Retrieved 2019-08-13.
46. Mufti, Mariam (Jun 22, 2018). "What Do We Know about Hybrid Regimes after Two Decades of Scholarship?". Politics and Governance. 6 (2). Cogitatio: 112–119. doi: 10.17645/pag.v6i2.1400 . ISSN   2183-2463. S2CID   158943827.
47. "Home - IDEA Global State of Democracy Report". International IDEA. Archived from the original on April 4, 2023. Retrieved Nov 26, 2022.
48. Schedler, Andreas (Aug 1, 2013). "Shaping the Authoritarian Arena". The Politics of Uncertainty. Oxford University Press. pp. 54–75. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199680320.003.0003. ISBN   978-0-19-968032-0.
49. Brooker, P. (2013). Non-Democratic Regimes. Comparative Government and Politics. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 222. ISBN   978-1-137-38253-5. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.

Further reading

• Douglas V. Verney (15 April 2013). The Analysis of Political Systems. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-135-03477-1.
• Almond, Gabriel A., et al. Comparative Politics Today: A World View (Seventh Edition). 2000. ISBN   0-316-03497-5.
• Ferris, Kerry, and Jill Stein. The Real World An Introduction to Sociology. 3rd ed. New York City: W W Norton & Co, 2012. Print.
• "political system". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 02 Dec. 2012.

External links

• Topic guide on political systems at Governance and Social Development Resource Centre