Public policy

Last updated

Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions [1] [2] to solve or address relevant and real-world problems, guided by a conception [3] and often implemented by programs. These policies govern and include various aspects of life such as education, health care, employment, finance, economics, transportation, and all over elements of society. [4] The implementation of public policy is known as public administration. Public policy can be considered the sum of a government's direct and indirect activities [5] and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways.

Contents

They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the public, typically by a government. Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organizations [6] or are made in co-production with communities or citizens, [7] [8] which can include potential experts, [9] [10] [11] scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use [12] [13] some of their results. They are typically made[ how? ] by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities) currently elected politicians. Therefore, the "policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors: elected politicians, political party leaders, pressure groups, civil servants, publicly employed professionals, judges, non-governmental organizations, international agencies, academic experts, journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy." [14]

A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle", which was first discussed by the political scientist Harold Laswell in his book The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis, published in 1956. The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is agenda setting, policy formulation, legitimation, implementation, and evaluation. "It divides the policy process into a series of stages, from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented, and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next." [15]

Officials considered policymakers bear the responsibility to advance the interests of various stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task. Government action is the decisions, policies, and actions taken by governments, which can have a significant impact on individuals, organizations, and society at large. Regulations, subsidies, taxes, and spending plans are just a few of the various shapes it might take. Achieving certain social or economic objectives, such as fostering economic expansion, lowering inequality, or safeguarding the environment, is the aim of government action.

Varying conceptions of public policy

Public policy can be conceptualized in varying ways, according to the purposes of the speaker or author, and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with.

One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done, and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens. [16]

David Easton in the USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of the policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values". [17]

Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes". [18]

An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by Richard Titmuss: "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends". [19] Titmuss' perspective was particularly one of social contract ethics.

More recently, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7). [3] Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a theory of change or program theory [20] [21] which he believes can be empirically tested.

One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy is that of Thomas R. Dye, according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2). [22] Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept. [3] Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do". [23]

In an institutionalist view, the foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship. [24]

In his book Advanced Introduction to Public Policy, B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for the purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way. [25] In another definition, author B. Dente in his book Understanding Policy Decisions explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e. a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality is measured by the capacity to create public value." [26]

Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives". [27] Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions". [28] Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since the political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people. [29]

Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force. [30] The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions actually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from the broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences." [31]

In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major universities throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.

Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies. [30]

Public policy making and implementation

Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive system through which public problems are identified and resolved through the creation of new policy or reform of existing policy. [32]

Public problems can originate in endless ways and require different policy responses (such as regulations, subsidies, import quotas, and laws) on the local, national, or international level. The public problems that influence public policy making can be of economic, social, or political nature. [33]

A government holds a legal monopoly to initiate or threaten physical force to achieve its ends when necessary. For instance, in times of chaos when quick decision making is needed. [34]

Public policy visualization

A topology model can be used to demonstrate the types of and implementation of public policy:

The Types of Government Action [35]
DirectIndirect
MoneyTrade: Make and BuyTransfer: Tax and Subsidize
OtherRegulation: Oblige and ProhibitKnowledge: Inform and Implore

The direct section of money explains that a form of direct action is either using the resources already publicly available (Make) or contracting the private sector to address the issue (Buy).

The indirect section of money explains means to dissuade or encourage behavior using money. Literally through taxing the undesired behavior and subsidizing the desired behavior.

The direct section of Other echoes the direct section of Money. However, instead of using fiscal power, the state uses authoritative power to enforce this. This comes in ways of making an action mandatory (Oblige) or prohibiting the behavior by threatening of law (Prohibit).

The indirect section of Other is spreading information on an issue to the public (Inform) and making calls to action on an issue (Implore)

It is through a combined effort of these means that a state addresses and works on any given issue.

Public policy making

Public policy making is a time-consuming 'policy cycle'.

The policy cycle as set out in Understanding Public Policy: Theories and Issues. [36]

Agenda setting

Agenda setting identifies problems that require government attention, deciding which issue deserve the most attention and defining the nature of the problem.

Social construction of problems

Most public problems are made through the reflection of social and ideological values. As societies and communities evolve over time, the nature in which norms, customs and morals are proven acceptable, unacceptable, desirable or undesirable changes as well. [37] Thus, the search of crucial problems to solve becomes difficult to distinguish within 'top-down' governmental bodies.

Policy stream

The policy stream is a concept developed by John Kingdon as a model proposed to show compelling problems need to be conjoined with two other factors: appropriate political climate and favorable and feasible solutions (attached to problems) that flow together to move onto policy agenda. This reinforces the policy window, another concept demonstrating the critical moment within a time and situation that a new policy could be motivated. [38]

Problem stream

Because the definition of public problems are not obvious, they are most often denied and not acted upon. The problem stream represents a policy process to compromise for how worthy problems are to create policies and solutions. [37] This is represented in five discrete factors:

  • Indicators: Scientific measurements, qualitative, statistical data using empirical evidence is used to bring relevance to particular phenomena.
  • Interpretation: Policymakers make judgements whether an issue constitutes a problem worthy of action.
  • Ideology: Elements of dominant values, customs, beliefs are crucial to devising problems needed for attention.
  • Instances: Media coverage supports by drawing attention to issues, thus prompting policymakers to respond and address changes.

Therefore, John Kingdon's model [39] suggests the policy window appears through the emergence and connection of problems, politics and policies, emphasizing an opportunity to stimulate and initiate new policies. [37]

Issue attention cycle

The issue attention cycle is a concept developed by Anthony Downs (1972) where problems progress through five distinct stages. [40] This reinforces how the policy agenda does not necessarily lead to policy change, as public interest dissipates, most problems end up resolving themselves or get ignored by policymakers. [37] Its key stages include:

  1. Pre-problem stage: The problem is not recognized by the public, media or policy makers.
  2. Alarmed discovery and euphoric enthusiasm: Something is identified as a problem, supported awareness by media to pursue seriousness of problem
  3. Realization of costs which will be incurred by the solutions: Investigating through cost-benefit analysis, bringing awareness of financial, environmental, structural curbs to consider solutions and what makes for their consequences.
  4. Decline in public interest in issue: Citizens acquire acceptance of the problem and it becomes normalized. Newer issues attract the attention of the public. Limited attention span encourages policymakers to delay developing policy to see which public troubles demand necessary and worthwhile solving.
  5. Issue slips off, or back down, the policy agenda: The issue effectively disappears, although it has the possibility to re-emerge in other pressing circumstances.

Policy formulation

This is the setting of the objectives for the policy, along with identifying the cost and effect of solutions that could be proposed from policy instruments.

Legitimation

Legitimation is when approval/ support for the policy instruments is gathered, involving one of or a combination of executive approval, legislative approval, and seeking consent through consultation or referendums.

Implementation

Policy implementation is establishing or employing an organization to take responsibility for the policy, making sure the organization has the resources/legal authority to do so, in addition to making sure the policy is carried out as planned. An example of this would be the department of education being set up.

Enforcement

Enforcement mechanisms are a central part of various policies.[ additional citation(s) needed ] Enforcement mechanisms co-determine natural resource governance outcomes [41] and pollution-related policies may require proper enforcement mechanisms (and often substitutes) to have a positive effect. [42] Enforcement may include law enforcement or combine incentive and disincentive-based policy instruments. [43] A meta-analysis of policy studies across multiple policy domains suggests enforcement mechanisms are the "only modifiable treaty design choice" with the potential to improve the mostly low effectiveness of international treaties. [44] [45]

Implementation gap

As stated by Paul Cairney, the implementation gap are the stages a policy must go through before an authoritative decision is made and carried out. As an example, the agenda setting stage is followed by the policy formulation, this will continue until the policy is implemented. [46]

Top-down and bottom-up implementation

"Top-down" and "bottom-up" describe the process of policy implementation. Top-down implementation means the carrying out of a policy at the top i.e. central government or legislature. The bottom-up approach suggests that the implementation should start with the target group, as they are seen as the actual implementers of policy. [47]

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which the policy has been successful, or if this was the right policy to begin with/ was it implemented correctly and if so, did it go as expected.

Policy maintenance

Maintenance is when the policy makers decide to either terminate or continue the policy. The policy is usually either continued as is, modified, or discontinued.

Composition

This cycle will unless discontinued go back to the agenda-setting phase and the cycle will commence again. However, the policy cycle is illustrated in a chronological and cyclical structure which could be misleading as in actuality, policymaking would include overlapping stages between the multiple interactions of policy proposals, adjustments, decision-making amongst multiple government institutions and respective authoritative actors. [48] Likewise, although its heuristic model is straightforward and easy to understand, the cycle is not totally applicable in all situations of policymaking due to it being far too simple as there are more crucial steps that should go into more complex real life scenarios. [49]

Criticism of the "policy studies" approach

The mainstream tradition of policy studies has been criticized for oversimplifying the processes of public policy, particularly in use of models based on rational choice theory, failing to capture the current dynamics in today's society as well as sustaining ambiguities and misunderstandings. In contrast, an anthropological approach to studying public policy deconstructs many of the categories and concepts that are currently used, seeking to gain a deeper understanding of the configurations of actors, activities, and influences that go into shaping policy decisions, implementations and results. [50]

Responsibility of policymakers

Each system is influenced by different public problems and issues, and has different stakeholders; as such, each requires different public policy. [51]

In public policy making, numerous individuals, corporations, non-profit organizations and interest groups compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way. [52] Therefore, "the failure [of public policies] is possibly not only the politician's fault because he/she is never the lone player in the field of decision making. There is a multitude of actors pursuing their goals, sometimes complementary, often competing or contradictory ones." [53] In this sense, public policies can be the result of actors involved, such as interest organization's, and not necessarily the will of the public. [54] [55] Furthermore, public policy is also affected by social and economic conditions, prevailing political values, the publics mood and the structure of government [56] which all play a role in the complexity of public policy making.

The large set of actors in the public policy process, such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts, and industry or sector representatives, use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and opponents, and mobilizing allies on a particular issue. [33] The use of effective tools and instruments determines the outcome of a policy. [57]

Many actors can be important in the public policy process, but government officials ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so, government officials are expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all project stakeholders into account. [51]

It is however worth noting that what public policy is put forward can be influenced by the political stance of the party in power. Following the 2008/2009 financial crisis, David Cameron's Conservative party looked to implement a policy of austerity in 2010 after winning the general election that year, to shore up the economy and diminish the UK's national debt. [58] Whilst the Conservatives saw reducing the national debt as an absolute priority, the Labour Party, since the effects of Conservative austerity became apparent, have slated the policy for its 'needless' pressure on the working classes and those reliant on welfare, their 2019 election manifesto stating "Tory cuts [have] pushed our public services to breaking point" and that "the Conservatives have starved our education system of funding". [59] Furthermore, in the US, Members of Congress have observed that partisan rancour, ideological disputes, and decreased willingness to compromise on policies have made policy making far more difficult than it was only a decade ago [60] .These are good examples of how varying political beliefs can impact what is perceived as paramount for the electorate.

Since societies have changed in the past decades, the public policy making system changed too. In the 2010s, public policy making is increasingly goal-oriented, aiming for measurable results and goals, and decision-centric, focusing on decisions that must be taken immediately. [51]

Furthermore, mass communications and technological changes such as the widespread availability of the Internet have caused the public policy system to become more complex and interconnected. [61] This is because there is a new level of scrutiny which the ‘tabloid society’ provides of the decisions made by politicians and policy makers, often concentrating on the ‘people story’ side of these decisions [62] .The changes pose new challenges to the current public policy systems and pressures leaders to evolve to remain effective and efficient. [51]

Public policies come from all governmental entities and at all levels: legislatures, courts, bureaucratic agencies, and executive offices at national, local and state levels. On the federal level, public policies are laws enacted by Congress, executive orders issued by the president, decisions handed down by the US Supreme Court, and regulations issued by bureaucratic agencies. [63]

On the local, public policies include city ordinances, fire codes, and traffic regulations. They also take the form of written rules and regulations of city governmental departments: the police, fire departments, street repair, or building inspection. On the state level, public policies involve laws enacted by the state legislatures, decisions made by state courts, rules developed by state bureaucratic agencies, and decisions made by governors. [63]

Policy analysis

In the contemporary era, there has been a massive influx of policy analysis. [64] However, there is no evidence to suggest that this influx has aided to solving policy issues. Distributive theory claims that legislatures in reality have little use for information that pertains to the policies they vote on.

It has been determined that instead of certain fields having a higher concentration of information and analysis, it is rather competitive issues that are focused on more. [64] The same report this was determined from also reported that information and analysis only seemed to affect issues over a long-term period and thusly ineffective at reactionary action.

Policy design

Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. [65] Policy design proposes critical analysis of policy instruments and their implementation. Uncertainties policy designers face include (in brief):

Nevertheless, policy design is elemental for the succession of public policy, with it comes intricate and multi-level approaches but it is necessary for good, careful policy design to be considered before implementing the policy. [65]

Data-driven policy

Data-driven policy is a policy designed by a government based on existing data, evidence, rational analysis and use of information technology to crystallize problems and highlight effective solutions. [66] Data-driven policy making aims to make use of data and collaborate with citizens to co-create policy. [67] Policy makers can now make use of new data sources and technological developments like Artificial Intelligence to gain new insights and make policy decisions which contribute to societal development.

In the 2020s, policymakers will use data for policies and public service design, while responding to citizen engagement demands. The Anticipatory Governance model is particularly important when considering the sheer amount of data available. In terms of using new technology to collect, analyze, and disseminate data, governments are only just beginning to utilize data science for policy implementation. [68] With new technologies implemented in government administration, a more complete visualization of current problems will emerge, allowing for more precision in targeted policy-making. [69] Data science involves the transformation, analysis, visualization, and presentation of data, and potentially improve the quality of life and society by providing a more informational environment for public debate and political decision-making. Some examples of utilizing data science in public policy making are resource optimization, improving current public services, and fraud and error mitigation. [70]

Data sets rarely merge between government agencies or within agencies or countries' governments. This is beginning to change with the COVID-19 pandemic spreading globally in early 2020. [71] Forecasting and creating data models to prevent the propagation of the virus has become a vital approach for policy makers in governments around the world. [72]

User-centered policy design

User-centered policies are policies that are designed and implemented with the end-users, or those who are impacted by the policy, as co-designers. [73] [74] Policymakers using this design process utilize users' knowledge of their lived experiences. [73] This can allow for policymakers focus on including both comprehensiveness and comprehension within policies to aid in clarity for end-users, such as workers or organizations. [73]

Small system dynamics model

The small system dynamics model is a method of condensing and simplifying the understanding of complex issues related to overall productivity. [75]

Evidence-based policy

Evidence-based policy is associated with Adrian Smith because in his 1996 presidential address to the Royal Statistical Society, Smith questioned the current process of policy making and urged for a more "evidence-based approach" commenting that it has "valuable lessons to offer". [76]

Some policy scholars now avoid using the term evidence-based policy, using others such as evidence informed. This language shift allows continued thinking about the underlying desire to improve evidence use in terms of its rigor or quality, while avoiding some of the key limitations or reductionist ideas at times seen with the evidence-based language. Still, the language of evidence-based policy is widely used and, as such, can be interpreted to reflect a desire for evidence to be used well or appropriately in one way or another – such as by ensuring systematic consideration of rigorous and high quality policy relevant evidence, or by avoiding biased and erroneous applications of evidence for political ends. [77]

The development and analysis of evidence based / evidence informed policy are supported by multidisciplinary public policy research and policy analysis.

In the U.S.

Unlike the UK, the U.S. has a largely devolved government, with power at local, state and federal level. Due to these various levels of governance, it can often be difficult to coordinate passing bills and legislation, and there is often disagreement. Despite this, the system allows citizens to be relatively involved in inputting legislation. Furthermore, each level of government is set up in a similar way with similar rules, and all pump money into creating what is hoped to be effective legislation. Policy creation in America is often seen as unique to other countries. [78]

Academic discipline

As an academic discipline, public policy brings in elements of many social science fields and concepts, including economics, sociology, political economy, social policy, program evaluation, policy analysis, and public management, all as applied to problems of governmental administration, management, and operations. [79] At the same time, the study of public policy is distinct from political science or economics, in its focus on the application of theory to practice. While the majority of public policy degrees are master's and doctoral degrees, there are several universities that offer undergraduate education in public policy. Notable institutions include:

CIGI Campus, home to the Balsillie School of International Affairs Centre for International Governance Innovation 1.jpg
CIGI Campus, home to the Balsillie School of International Affairs
The Blavatnik School of Government building on Walton Street Blavatnik School of Government, Oxford.JPG
The Blavatnik School of Government building on Walton Street

Traditionally, the academic field of public policy focused on domestic policy. However, the wave of economic globalization that occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries created a need for a subset of public policy that focused on global governance, especially as it relates to issues that transcend national borders such as climate change, terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and economic development. [80] Consequently, many traditional public policy schools had to adjust their curricula to better suit this new policy landscape, as well as develop entirely new curricula altogether. [81]

Controversies

The Austrian and Chicago school of economics criticise public policymakers for not "understanding basic economics". In particular, a member of the Chicago school of economics, Thomas Sowell writes "Under popularly elected government, the political incentives are to do what is popular, even if the consequences are worse than the consequences of doing nothing, or doing something that is less popular". [82] Therefore, since "Economics studies the consequences of decisions that are made about the use of land, labour, capital and other resources that go into producing the volume of output which determines a country's standard of living"; [83] this means that artificially tampering with the allocation of scarce resources such as implementing certain public policies such as price controls will cause inefficiency in the economy and decline in the standard of living within society. [84] [85] [86] [87]

One of the biggest controversies of public policy is that policy making is often influenced by lobbyists such as big corporations in order to sway policies in their favour. The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is an organisation that lobbies United States lawmakers to oppose stricter gun laws. [88]

Another controversy surrounding public policy is that much like anyone, policymakers can sometimes hold bias and end up looking for facts that can prove their preconceptions to be true. [89] In a study of politicians in Denmark, which was published in the British Journal of Political Science, it was established that they interpreted data between two groups in a case study more successfully when there was no labeling based on class or status as opposed to when they were labeled according to their class or status; their preconceptions affected how they viewed data. [90]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public choice</span> Economic theory applied to political science

Public choice, or public choice theory, is "the use of economic tools to deal with traditional problems of political science." It includes the study of political behavior. In political science, it is the subset of positive political theory that studies self-interested agents and their interactions, which can be represented in a number of ways—using standard constrained utility maximization, game theory, or decision theory. It is the origin and intellectual foundation of contemporary work in political economy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prospect theory</span> Theory of behavioral economics

Prospect theory is a theory of behavioral economics, judgment and decision making that was developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979. The theory was cited in the decision to award Kahneman the 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.

Public opinion, or popular opinion, is the collective opinion on a specific topic or voting intention relevant to society. It is the people's views on matters affecting them.

Policy is a deliberate system of guidelines to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. A policy is a statement of intent and is implemented as a procedure or protocol. Policies are generally adopted by a governance body within an organization. Policies can assist in both subjective and objective decision making. Policies used in subjective decision-making usually assist senior management with decisions that must be based on the relative merits of a number of factors, and as a result, are often hard to test objectively, e.g. work–life balance policy. Moreover, governments and other institutions have policies in the form of laws, regulations, procedures, administrative actions, incentives and voluntary practices. Frequently, resource allocations mirror policy decisions.

Managerial economics is a branch of economics involving the application of economic methods in the organizational decision-making process. Economics is the study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Managerial economics involves the use of economic theories and principles to make decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources. It guides managers in making decisions relating to the company's customers, competitors, suppliers, and internal operations.

Development communication refers to the use of communication to facilitate social development. Development communication engages stakeholders and policy makers, establishes conducive environments, assesses risks and opportunities and promotes information exchange to create positive social change via sustainable development. Development communication techniques include information dissemination and education, behavior change, social marketing, social mobilization, media advocacy, communication for social change, and community participation.

Policy analysis or public policy analysis is a technique used in the public administration sub-field of political science to enable civil servants, nonprofit organizations, and others to examine and evaluate the available options to implement the goals of laws and elected officials. People who regularly use policy analysis skills and techniques on the job, particularly those who use it as a major part of their job duties are generally known by the title policy analyst. The process is also used in the administration of large organizations with complex policies. It has been defined as the process of "determining which of various policies will achieve a given set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Memorandum</span> Written message, typically in a professional setting

A memorandum, also known as a briefing note, is a written message that is typically used in a professional setting. Commonly abbreviated memo, these messages are usually brief and are designed to be easily and quickly understood. Memos can thus communicate important information efficiently in order to make dynamic and effective changes.

Evidence-based policy is a concept in public policy that advocates for policy decisions to be grounded on, or influenced by, rigorously established objective evidence. This concept presents a stark contrast to policymaking predicated on ideology, 'common sense', anecdotes, or personal intuitions. The methodology employed in evidence-based policy often includes comprehensive research methods such as randomized controlled trials (RCT). Good data, analytical skills, and political support to the use of scientific information are typically seen as the crucial elements of an evidence-based approach.

Environmental policy is the commitment of an organization or government to the laws, regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally include air and water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, maintenance of biodiversity, the management of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species. For example, concerning environmental policy, the implementation of an eco-energy-oriented policy at a global level to address the issues of global warming and climate changes could be addressed. Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to influence human activities and thereby prevent undesirable effects on the biophysical environment and natural resources, as well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not have unacceptable effects on humans.

Public participation, also known as citizen participation or patient and public involvement, is the inclusion of the public in the activities of any organization or project. Public participation is similar to but more inclusive than stakeholder engagement.

The rational planning model is a model of the planning process involving a number of rational actions or steps. Taylor (1998) outlines five steps, as follows:

Public engagement or public participation is a term that has recently been used to describe "the practice of involving members of the public in the agenda-setting, decision-making, and policy-forming activities of organizations/institutions responsible for policy development." It is focused on the participatory actions of the public to aid in policy making based in their values.

Environmental politics designate both the politics about the environment and an academic field of study focused on three core components:

Nudge theory is a concept in behavioral economics, decision making, behavioral policy, social psychology, consumer behavior, and related behavioral sciences that proposes adaptive designs of the decision environment as ways to influence the behavior and decision-making of groups or individuals. Nudging contrasts with other ways to achieve compliance, such as education, legislation or enforcement.

Policy monitoring comes a range of activities describing and analyzing the development and implementation of policies, identifying potential gaps in the process, outlining areas for improvement, and holding policy implementers accountable for their activities.

Gender budgeting means preparing budgets or analyzing them from a gender perspective. Also referred to as gender-sensitive budgeting, this practice does not entail dividing budgets for women. It aims at dealing with budgetary gender inequality issues, including gender hierarchies and the discrepancies between women's and men's salaries. At its core, gender budgeting is a feminist policy with a primary goal of re-orienting the allocation of public resources, advocating for an advanced decision-making role for women in important issues, and securing equity in the distribution of resources between men and women. Gender budgeting allows governments to promote equality through fiscal policies by taking analyses of a budget's differing impacts on the sexes as well as setting goals or targets for equality and allocating funds to support those goals. This practice does not always target intentional discrimination but rather forces an awareness of the effects of financial schemes on all genders.

Policy entrepreneurs are individuals who exploit opportunities to influence policy outcomes so as to promote their own goals, without having the resources necessary to achieve this alone. They are not satisfied with merely promoting their self-interests within institutions that others have established; rather, they try to create new horizons of opportunity through innovative ideas and strategies. These persistent individuals employ innovative ideas and nontraditional strategies to promote desired policy outcomes. Whether from the private, public or third sector, one of their defining characteristics is a willingness to invest their own resources – time, energy, reputation and sometimes money – in hope of a future return. While policy entrepreneurs may try to block changes proposed by others, entrepreneurial activities usually seek to change the status quo rather than preserve it. It should be stressed, however, that although the literature has focused mainly on entrepreneurs who have led successful changes in policy, not all policy entrepreneurship ends in success. Finally, policy entrepreneurship is but one form of political participation. It is a process that involves individuals who are willing to take risks, identify policy problems and solutions, and use their political skills and timing to achieve a specified outcome". Most accounts and case studies address these individuals in a national context but the emergence of transnational policy entrepreneurs is increasingly apparent.

Policy learning is the increased understanding that occurs when policymakers compare one set of policy problems to others within their own or in other jurisdictions. It can aid in understanding why a policy was implemented, the policy's effects, and how the policy could apply to the policymakers' jurisdiction. Before a policy is adopted it goes through a process that involves various combinations of elected official(s), political parties, civil servants, advocacy groups, policy experts or consultants, corporations, think tanks, and multiple levels of government. Policy can be challenged in various ways, including questioning its legality. Ideally, policymakers develop complete knowledge about the policy; the policy should achieve its intent and efficiently use resources.

The Multiple Streams Framework (MSF) is a prominent approach for analyzing public policymaking processes. It emphasizes the unpredictable and complex nature of policy development, proposing that three distinct, yet interconnected streams influence the process:

References

  1. ↑ Martinez, Jessica. "What is Public Policy?". civiced.org. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  2. ↑ "What is Public Policy? Why It's Important? | UoPeople". University of the People. 1 June 2021. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  3. 1 2 3 Lassance, Antonio (2020-11-10). "What Is a Policy and What Is a Government Program? A Simple Question With No Clear Answer, Until Now". Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3727996. S2CID   234600314. SSRN   3727996.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ↑ Hoffman-Miller, Patricia, MPA. “Public Policy.” Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2022
  5. ↑ Peters, B. Guy (2 August 2018). American Public Policy: Promise and Performance. CQ Press. ISBN   978-1-5063-9957-7. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  6. ↑ Rinfret, Sara; Scheberie, Denise; Pautz, Michelle (2018). "Chapter 2: The Policy Process and Policy Theories". Public Policy: A Concise Introduction. SAGE Publications. pp. 19–44. ISBN   978-1-5063-2971-0.
  7. ↑ Bovaird, Tony; Loeffler, Elke. User and Community Co-production of Public Services and Public Policies through Collective Decision-making: the Role of Emerging Technologies . Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  8. ↑ Brandsen, Taco; Steen, Trui; Verschuere, Bram. "Co-Creation and Co-Production in Public Services: Urgent Issues in Practice and Research". Co-Production and Co-Creation (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  9. ↑ Blomkamp, Emma (December 2018). "The Promise of Co-Design for Public Policy: The Promise of Co-Design for Public Policy". Australian Journal of Public Administration. 77 (4): 729–743. doi: 10.1111/1467-8500.12310 . hdl: 11343/283557 .
  10. ↑ Deroubaix, J. F. (26 August 2008). "The co-production of a "relevant" expertise – administrative and scientific cooperation in the French water policies elaboration and implementation since the 1990s". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 12 (4): 1165–1174. Bibcode:2008HESS...12.1165D. doi: 10.5194/hess-12-1165-2008 . ISSN   1027-5606.
  11. ↑ Morgan, M. Granger (20 May 2014). "Use (and abuse) of expert elicitation in support of decision making for public policy". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (20): 7176–7184. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.7176M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1319946111 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   4034232 . PMID   24821779.
  12. ↑ National Research Council; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Committee on the Use of Social Science Knowledge in Public Policy (31 October 2012). Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy. National Academies Press. ISBN   978-0-309-26164-7. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2022.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Ritter, Alison (1 January 2009). "How do drug policy makers access research evidence?". International Journal of Drug Policy. 20 (1): 70–75. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.11.017. ISSN   0955-3959. PMID   18226519.
  14. ↑ Hill, Michael (2021). The public policy process (8th ed.). Milton: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-21.
  15. ↑ Cairney, Paul (2019). Understanding public policy: Theories and issues. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 26.
  16. ↑ Nawarat, Nongyao; Medley, Michael (2018). "The Public Regime for Migrant Child Education in Thailand: Alternative Depictions of Policy". Asian Politics & Policy. 10 (3): 412–415. doi:10.1111/aspp.12408. S2CID   158615070.
  17. ↑ Easton, David (1953). The political system: An enquiry into the state of political science. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 130.
  18. ↑ Cairney, Paul (2012). Understanding public policy: Theories and issues. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 5.
  19. ↑ Titmuss, Richard (1974). Social Policy. London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 23. ISBN   0-394-49447-4.
  20. ↑ Weiss, Carol H. (1972). Evaluation. London: Pearson. pp. 46–70. ISBN   978-0-13-292193-0.
  21. ↑ Kathryn E. Newcomer; Harry P. Hatry; Joseph S. Wholey (2015). Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. pp. 62–88. ISBN   978-1-118-89360-9.
  22. ↑ Dye, Thomas R. (1972). Understanding Public Policy. Upper Saddle, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 2. ISBN   978-0-205-71685-2.
  23. ↑ Dye, Thomas R. (1972). Understanding Public Policy. Upper Saddle, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 13. ISBN   978-0-13-613147-2.
  24. ↑ "Characteristics of Successful Public Policy". Norwich University Public Administration. Archived from the original on 1 December 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
  25. ↑ Peters, B. G. (2015). Advanced Introduction to Public Policy. Edward Elgar. p. 3. ISBN   978-1-78195-576-5.
  26. ↑ Dente, Bruno (2013-12-05), Understanding Policy Decisions, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–27, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02520-9_1, ISBN   978-3-319-02519-3
  27. ↑ "Definitions of Public Policy and the Law". mainweb-v.musc.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-01-20. Retrieved 2018-12-18.
  28. ↑ Schuster, W. Michael (31 December 2008). "For the Greater Good: The Use of Public Policy Considerations in Confirming Chapter 11 Plans of Reorganization". SSRN   1368469.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  29. ↑ Pellissery, Sony (2019). Transformative Law and Public Policy. New Delhi: Routledge. ISBN   9780367348298.
  30. 1 2 John, Peter (1998). Analyzing Public Policy. London: Continuum. p. 10. ISBN   978-0-203-13621-8.
  31. ↑ Anderson, J. E. (2003). "Chapter 1: The Study of Public Policy". Public Policymaking: An Introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
  32. ↑ John, Peter (1998). Analysing Public Policy. Continuum.
  33. 1 2 Sharkansky, Ira; R. Hofferbert. "Dimensions of State Politics, Economics, and Public Policy". The American Political Science Review.
  34. ↑ Dusza, Karl (1989). "Max Weber's conception of the state". International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society. 3: 71–105. doi:10.1007/BF01430691. S2CID   145585927.
  35. ↑ Michael O'Hare, A Typology of Governmental Action
  36. ↑ Cairney, Paul (2012), "Introduction: Theories and Issues", Understanding Public Policy, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 1–21, doi:10.1007/978-0-230-35699-3_1, ISBN   978-0-230-22971-6 , retrieved 2021-01-10
  37. 1 2 3 4 Dorey, Peter (2005). Policy Making in Britain: An Introduction. London. doi:10.4135/9781446279410. ISBN   978-0-7619-4904-6. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2021-01-22.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  38. ↑ Wilson, William (1993), "Can Sociology Play a Greater Role in Shaping the National Agenda?", Sociology and the Public Agenda, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 3–22, doi:10.4135/9781483325484.n1, ISBN   978-0-8039-5083-2 , retrieved 2021-01-22
  39. ↑ Béland, Daniel; Howlett, Michael (2016-05-26). "The Role and Impact of the Multiple-Streams Approach in Comparative Policy Analysis". Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice. 18 (3): 221–227. doi: 10.1080/13876988.2016.1174410 . ISSN   1387-6988. S2CID   156139395.
  40. ↑ Gupta, Kuhika; Jenkins-Smith, Hank (2016-07-07). Lodge, Martin; Page, Edward C; Balla, Steven J (eds.). "Anthony Downs, 'Up and Down with Ecology: The "Issue-Attention" Cycle'". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199646135.013.34.
  41. ↑ Yeboah-Assiamah, Emmanuel; Muller, Kobus; Domfeh, Kwame Ameyaw (1 January 2017). "Institutional assessment in natural resource governance: A conceptual overview". Forest Policy and Economics. 74: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2016.10.006. ISSN   1389-9341.
  42. ↑ Dhanshyam, M.; Srivastava, Samir K. (May 2021). "Effective policy mix for plastic waste mitigation in India using System Dynamics". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 168: 105455. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105455. ISSN   0921-3449. S2CID   233569368.
  43. ↑ Börner, J.; Wunder, S.; Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S.; Hyman, G.; Nascimento, N. (1 November 2014). "Forest law enforcement in the Brazilian Amazon: Costs and income effects". Global Environmental Change. 29: 294–305. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.021. ISSN   0959-3780.
  44. ↑ "Most international treaties are ineffective, Canadian study finds". CTVNews. 3 August 2022. Archived from the original on 15 September 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
  45. ↑ Hoffman, Steven J.; Baral, Prativa; Rogers Van Katwyk, Susan; Sritharan, Lathika; Hughsam, Matthew; Randhawa, Harkanwal; Lin, Gigi; Campbell, Sophie; Campus, Brooke; Dantas, Maria; Foroughian, Neda; Groux, Gaëlle; Gunn, Elliot; Guyatt, Gordon; Habibi, Roojin; Karabit, Mina; Karir, Aneesh; Kruja, Krista; Lavis, John N.; Lee, Olivia; Li, Binxi; Nagi, Ranjana; Naicker, Kiyuri; Røttingen, John-Arne; Sahar, Nicola; Srivastava, Archita; Tejpar, Ali; Tran, Maxwell; Zhang, Yu-qing; Zhou, Qi; Poirier, Mathieu J. P. (9 August 2022). "International treaties have mostly failed to produce their intended effects". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (32): e2122854119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11922854H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2122854119. ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   9372541 . PMID   35914153.
  46. ↑ Howlett Michael, Giest Sarah (2013). "Chapter 2: The policy-making process". Routledge Handbook of public policy. London; New York: Routledge.
  47. ↑ "Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches within Implementation". Political Pipeline. 21 February 2013. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  48. ↑ "StackPath" (PDF). Institute for Government. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-02-14. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
  49. ↑ "Understanding policy cycles". EgyptToday. 2018-08-02. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
  50. ↑ Wedel, Janine R.; Shore, Cris; Feldman, Gregory; Lathrop, Stacy (July 2005). "Toward an Anthropology of Public Policy". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 600 (1): 30–51. doi:10.1177/0002716205276734. ISSN   0002-7162. S2CID   56466867. Archived from the original on 2023-01-17. Retrieved 2023-01-17.
  51. 1 2 3 4 Thei, Geurts (2010). "Public Policy Making: The 21st Century Perspective".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  52. ↑ Kilpatrick
  53. ↑ Potůček, Martin (2018). Public policy: a comprehensive introduction. Prague: Karolinum Press. pp. 83–84.
  54. ↑ Page, Benjamin I.; Shapiro, Robert Y. (March 1983). "Effects of Public Opinion on Policy". American Political Science Review. 77 (1): 175–190. doi:10.2307/1956018. ISSN   0003-0554. JSTOR   1956018. S2CID   143782308. Archived from the original on 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-21– via JSTOR.
  55. ↑ Burstein, Paul (2003). "The impact of public opinion on public policy: A review and an agenda". Political Research Quarterly. 56 (1): 30. doi:10.1177/106591290305600103. S2CID   154497611.
  56. ↑ Kraft, Michael E., and Scott R. Furlong. Public policy: Politics, analysis, and alternatives. Cq Press, 2019.
  57. ↑ Hupe, Peter L; Hill, Michael J (April 2016). "'And the rest is implementation.' Comparing approaches to what happens in policy processes beyond Great Expectations". Public Policy and Administration. 31 (2): 103–121. doi:10.1177/0952076715598828. ISSN   0952-0767. S2CID   153391005. Archived from the original on 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-21.
  58. ↑ Stanley, Liam (2016-03-07). "Legitimacy gaps, taxpayer conflict, and the politics of austerity in the UK" (PDF). The British Journal of Politics and International Relations. 18 (2): 389–406. doi:10.1177/1369148115615031. ISSN   1369-1481. S2CID   156681378. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-11-29. Retrieved 2020-01-02.
  59. ↑ "Rebuild our Public Services". The Labour Party. Archived from the original on 2020-01-26. Retrieved 2019-12-31.
  60. ↑ Davidson, Roger H., Walter J. Oleszek, Frances E. Lee, and Eric Schickler. Congress and Its Members. 17th ed. CQ Press. 2020
  61. ↑ Schramm, Wilbur (165). The Process and Effects of mass communication . Urbana, University of Illinois Press. ISBN   978-0-252-00197-0.
  62. ↑ Bovaird, Tony, and Elke Löffler. "The changing context of public policy." In Public management and governance, pp. 13-26. Routledge, 2003
  63. 1 2 Wilson, Carter (2006). Public Policy: Continuity and Change. Illinois: Waveland Press. p. 18. ISBN   1-4786-3671-8.
  64. 1 2 Shulock, Nancy (1999). The Paradox of Policy Analysis: If It Is Not Used, Why Do We Produce So Much of It?.
  65. 1 2 Howlett, Michael (2010-12-17). Designing Public Policies. doi:10.4324/9780203838631. ISBN   978-0-203-83863-1.
  66. ↑ Esty, Daniel; Rushing, Reece (Summer 2007). "The Promise of Data-Driven Policymaking". Issues in Science and Technology. 23 (4). Archived from the original on 2022-01-21. Retrieved 2020-01-08.
  67. ↑ van Veenstra, Anne Fleur; Kotterink, Bas (2017). "Data-Driven Policy Making: The Policy Lab Approach" (PDF). Electronic Participation. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 10429. Springer International Publishing. pp. 100–111. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64322-9_9. ISBN   978-3-319-64321-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2020-01-12.
  68. ↑ Maffei, Stefano; Leoni, Francesco; Villari, Beatrice (2020-04-02). "Data-driven anticipatory governance. Emerging scenarios in data for policy practices". Policy Design and Practice. 3 (2): 123–134. doi: 10.1080/25741292.2020.1763896 . hdl: 11311/1140914 . S2CID   219423835.
  69. ↑ Esty, Daniel; Rushing, Reece (1970-01-01). "The Promise of Data-Driven Policymaking". Issues in Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 2022-01-21. Retrieved 2022-03-29.
  70. ↑ "Research in Data Science and Applied to Public Administration" (PDF). Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologi. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2022-05-09.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  71. ↑ "Covid-19: How unprecedented data sharing has led to faster-than-ever outbreak research | Research and Innovation". ec.europa.eu. 23 March 2020. Archived from the original on 2022-05-09. Retrieved 2022-05-06.
  72. ↑ Hasan, A.; Putri, E. R. M.; Susanto, H.; Nuraini, N. (2021-01-20). "Data-driven modeling and forecasting of COVID-19 outbreak for public policy making". ISA Transactions. 124: 135–143. doi:10.1016/j.isatra.2021.01.028. ISSN   0019-0578. PMC   7816594 . PMID   33487397.
  73. 1 2 3 Ranney, Frances (11 March 2009). "Beyond Foucault: Toward a user‐centered approach to sexual harassment policy". Technical Communication Quarterly. 9 (1): 9–28. doi:10.1080/10572250009364683. S2CID   143856976.
  74. ↑ Moilanen, Stephen (May 15, 2019). "When to Use User-Centered Design for Public Policy". Stanford Social Innovation Review. Archived from the original on 2022-01-26. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
  75. ↑ Ghaffarzadegan, Navid; Lyneis, John; Richardson, George P. (2011). "How small system dynamics models can help the public policy process". System Dynamics Review. 27 (1): 22–44. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.407.8702 . doi:10.1002/sdr.442. ISSN   1099-1727.
  76. ↑ Boaz, Ashby, Young (2002). "Systematic Reviews: What have they got to offer evidence based policy and practice?" Archived 2020-08-14 at the Wayback Machine ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice. Retrieved 7 May 2016
  77. ↑ Parkhurst, Justin (2017). The Politics of Evidence: from Evidence Based Policy to the Good Governance of Evidence (PDF). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315675008. ISBN   978-1-138-93940-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-01-24. Retrieved 2020-08-28.[ page needed ]
  78. ↑ Peters, B. Guy (30 September 2015). American public policy : promise and performance (Tenth ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN   978-1-4833-9150-2. OCLC   908375236.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  79. ↑ Pellissery, Sony (2015). "Public Policy". The SAGE Encyclopedia of World Poverty. Sage.
  80. ↑ "Global Public Policy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  81. ↑ Stone, Diane. "Global public policy, transnational policy communities, and their networks". Policy Studies Journal 36, no. 1 (2008): 19–38
  82. ↑ Sowell, Thomas (2014). Basic Economics. Basic Books. p. 416.
  83. ↑ Sowell, Thomas (2014). Basic Economics. Basic Books. p. 4.
  84. ↑ Hazlitt, Henry (1988). Economics in one lesson.
  85. ↑ Rothbard, Murray (1963). America's Great Depression.
  86. ↑ Mises, Ludwig Von (1936). Socialism. pp. 99–113.
  87. ↑ Mises, Ludwig Von (1949). Human Action.
  88. ↑ "How the NRA, a powerful influence on American politics, found itself under attack". CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation). 2020-09-03. Archived from the original on 2022-01-25. Retrieved 2022-01-18.
  89. ↑ Tom Sasse, 2018, ‘Government must tackle bias in decision making’, Institute for Government
  90. ↑ Baekgaard, M., Christensen, J., Dahlmann, C., Mathiasen, A., & Petersen, N. (2019). The Role of Evidence in Politics: Motivated Reasoning and Persuasion among Politicians. British Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 1117-1140. doi:10.1017/S0007123417000084

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.