Technical geography

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Technical geography is the branch of geography that involves using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, understand, and communicate spatial information. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Contents

The other branches of geography, most commonly limited to human geography and physical geography, can usually apply the concepts and techniques of technical geography. [2] [3] [5] However, the methods and theory are distinct, and a technical geographer may be more concerned with the technological and theoretical concepts than the nature of the data. [6] [7] Further, a technical geographer may explore the relationship between the spatial technology and the end users to improve upon the technology and better understand the impact of the technology on human behavior. [8] Thus, the spatial data types a technical geographer employs may vary widely, including human and physical geography topics, with the common thread being the techniques and philosophies employed. [9] [10] To accomplish this, technical geographers often create their own software or scripts, which can then be applied more broadly by others. [11] They may also explore applying techniques developed for one application to another unrelated topic, such as applying Kriging, originally developed for mining, to disciplines as diverse as real-estate prices. [12] [13]

In teaching technical geography, instructors often need to fall back on examples from human and physical geography to explain the theoretical concepts. [14] While technical geography mostly works with quantitative data, the techniques and technology can be applied to qualitative geography, differentiating it from quantitative geography. [1] Within the branch of technical geography are the major and overlapping subbranches of geographic information science, geomatics, and geoinformatics. [6] [15]

Fundamentals

Technical geography is highly theoretical and focuses on developing and testing methods and technologies for handling spatial-temporal data. [1] These technologies are then applied to datasets and problems within the branches of both human and physical geography. [2] [3] [5] Historically, technical geography was focused on cartography and globe-making. [7] Today, while technical geographers still develop and make maps, the Information Age has pushed the development of information management techniques to handle spatial data and support decision-makers. [1] [8] To this end, technical geographers often adapt technology and techniques from other disciplines to spatial problems rather than create original innovations, such as using computers to aid in cartography. [12] [16] They also explore adapting techniques developed for one area of geography to another, such as kriging, originally created for estimating gold ore distributions but now applied to topics such as real estate appraisal. [17] [18] [19] Technical geography today is theoretically grounded in information theory, or the study of mathematical laws that govern information systems. [20]

Core concepts

There are several concepts related to technical geography that are considered central attributes of the discipline. In one paper, autocorrelation and frequency are listed as the concepts that technical geography is based upon. [1] Central to technical geography are the technologies surrounding cartography and map production, which is only possible through cartographic generalization. [1] [20] More than just reducing the overall level of information, cartographic generalization helps discover patterns and trends in data that underlie many techniques and technologies employed and investigated by technical geographers. [1] [20]

Autocorrelation

Moran's I statistic computed for different spatial patterns. Using 'rook' neighbors for each grid cell, setting w i j = 1 {\displaystyle w_{ij}=1} for neighbours j {\displaystyle j} of i {\displaystyle i} and then row normalizing the weight matrix. Top left shows anti-correlation giving a negative I. Top right shows a spatial gradient giving a large positive I. Bottom left shows random data giving a value of I near 0 (or - 1 / ( N - 1 ) [?] - 0.04 {\displaystyle -1/(N-1)\simeq -0.04} ). Bottom right shows an 'ink blot' or spreading pattern with positive autocorrelation. Moran's I example.png
Moran's I statistic computed for different spatial patterns. Using 'rook' neighbors for each grid cell, setting for neighbours of and then row normalizing the weight matrix. Top left shows anti-correlation giving a negative I. Top right shows a spatial gradient giving a large positive I. Bottom left shows random data giving a value of I near 0 (or ). Bottom right shows an 'ink blot' or spreading pattern with positive autocorrelation.
Clusters of the estimated percent of people in poverty by county in the contiguous United States in 2020 calculated using Anselin Local Moran's I. USA Contiguous Poverty 2020 clusters.jpg
Clusters of the estimated percent of people in poverty by county in the contiguous United States in 2020 calculated using Anselin Local Moran's I.

Autocorrelation is a statistical measure used to assess the degree to which a given data set is correlated with itself over different time intervals or spatial distances. [1] [21] [22] [23] In essence, it quantifies the similarity between observations as a function of the time lag or spatial distance between them. [21] Autocorrelation can be positive (indicating that similar values cluster together) or negative (indicating that dissimilar values are near each other). [21] Spatial autocorrelation involves the correlation of a variable with itself across different spatial locations. Temporal autocorrelation involves the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself over successive time intervals. [22] Autocorrelation is the foundation of Tobler's first law of geography. [1] Spatial autocorrelation is measured with tools such as Moran's I or Getis–Ord statistics. [24]

Autocorrelation is fundamental to technical geography because it provides critical insights into the spatial and temporal structure of geographical data. [1] It enhances the ability to model, analyze, and interpret spatial patterns and relationships, supporting various applications from environmental monitoring and urban planning to resource management and public health. [21] By understanding and leveraging autocorrelation, geographers can make more informed decisions, improve the accuracy of their analyses, and contribute to solving real-world geographical problems. [1] The techniques and technologies used to leverage this understanding are a core focus of technical geography. [1]

Frequency

In statistics, frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a particular event or value within a dataset. [25] [26] When dealing with spatial and temporal datasets, the concept of frequency can be applied to understand how often certain events or values occur across different locations (spatial) or over time (temporal). [26] Spatial datasets contain data points that are associated with specific geographic locations, and frequency in spatial datasets can be used to analyze patterns and distributions across different areas. [26] Temporal datasets involve data points that are associated with specific time points, and frequency in temporal datasets helps analyze trends and patterns over time. [26] Analyzing how the frequency of events changes across both space and time can reveal dynamic patterns. [1] Spatial and temporal frequency are core concepts in technical geography because they are fundamental to understanding and analyzing geographic phenomena. [1] Geography is inherently concerned with the distribution and dynamics of features across space and over time, and technical geography researches and develops the techniques to deal with this data. [27] [28] [29]

Cartographic generalization

Cartographic generalization is the process of simplifying the representation of geographical information on maps, making complex data more understandable and useful for specific purposes or scales. [20] This process involves selectively reducing the detail of features to prevent clutter and ensure that the map communicates the intended information effectively. [1] [20] The need for generalization arises because maps often depict large areas and scales, where including every detail is impractical and can overwhelm the map reader. [1] The primary goal of cartographic generalization is to balance detail with readability, ensuring that the map serves its intended purpose without sacrificing essential information. [20] By placing data in a spatial context, even though it is generalized, cartographic generalization creates additional information by revealing patterns and trends in the data. [1] [20]

Effective generalization requires a deep understanding of the map's use case, the audience's needs, and the geographical context. [20] Technological advancements, such as the World Wide Web (WWW), Geographic information systems (GIS), and information theory have greatly aided cartographers in generalizing maps more efficiently and consistently. [1] [20] These tools can apply generalization rules systematically, ensuring high-quality outputs even as data volume increases. Cartographic generalization is foundational in technical geography because it ensures that maps are functional, readable, and tailored to their intended use. [20] It balances the need for detail with the practical limitations of scale and medium, enhancing the effectiveness of maps as tools for communication, analysis, and decision-making. [20]

History

Early history and etymology

Possibly the oldest surviving map has been engraved on this mammoth tusk, dated to 25,000 BC, found from Pavlov in the Czech Republic. Engraving on a mammoth tusk, map, Gravettian, 076872x.jpg
Possibly the oldest surviving map has been engraved on this mammoth tusk, dated to 25,000 BC, found from Pavlov in the Czech Republic.
The "Erdapfel" of Martin Behaim is the oldest surviving terrestrial globe, made between 1491 and 1493. Behaims Erdapfel.jpg
The "Erdapfel" of Martin Behaim is the oldest surviving terrestrial globe, made between 1491 and 1493.

The term "technical geography" is a combination of the words "technical", from the Greek τεχνικός (tekhnikós, translated as artistic, skillful, workmanlike), meaning relating to a particular subject or activity and involving practical skills, and "geography", from the Greek γεωγραφία (geographia, a combination of Greek words ‘Geo,’ The Earth, and ‘Graphien,’ to describe. Literally "earth description"), a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Technical geography as a distinct term in the English language within the discipline of geography dates back at least as far as 1749 to a book published by English printer Edward Cave at St John's Gate, Clerkenwell. [7] [32] [Note 1] This 1749 book was divided into four parts, one of which was named "containing technical geography", which focused on both globes and maps, including concepts of cartographic design, and projection. [7] In this book, they chose to use the term "technical geography" rather than "practical geography" to clarify that the branch is distinct in theory and methods. [7] This publication defines technical geography with the following:

"The Description confider'd as to Form is of three Sorts; The first exhibits the Earth, by a Draught or Delineation; the second by Tables, or Registers; and the third by Treties or Discourse. Hence Technical Geography may be divided into Representatory, Synoptical, and Explanatory."

— Geography reformed: a new system of general geography, according to an accurate analysis of the science in four parts, 1749, [7]

While when the term technical geography first entered the English lexicon may be difficult to ascertain, technical geography as a concept crosses cultures, and techniques date back to the origins of cartography, surveying, and remote sensing. Technical geography as a term is more than place name recollection and toponymy; it involves spatial relationships between points and theory. [33] Eratosthenes has been called the "founder of mathematical geography," and his activities are described as "little different from what we expect of a technical geographer." [34] Within the "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography started by Ptolemy, scholars have identified distinct "technical elements" in "Ptolemaic cartographic theory" such as map projection, lines of latitude and longitude, coordinates, grids, scales, and the theory of astronomically defined climates. [35] Islamic geographers later adopted these technical elements when Ptolmey's book, Geographia, was translated into Arabic in the ninth century, often mixing them with elements of traditional Islamic cartography. [35] For example, the Kitab al-Buldan, written by Ibn al-Faqih between 902 and 903 C.E., was described by Henri Massé as "technical geography [including] themes of adab." [36]

19th century

By as early as 1860, technical geography was employed by French and Arab scholars at universities to contextualize historic research. [37] This includes several publications by the French professor Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau evaluating historic rainfall patterns in Algiers. [37] By the late 1800s, the term "technical geography" was in use to some capacity in American public education and academia. For example, an article in the 1889 edition of the journal School and Home Education stated that "we never hear teachers questioning whether technical geography shall be taught in the schools" and defined the term "technical" to mean "especially appropriate to any art or science." [38] An 1890 publication advertised that the 1891 International Geographical Congress at Berne would have five divisions in it program, with the first being technical geography listing topics like mathematical geography, geodesy, and cartography as examples of content within this division [39]

20th century

Early 20th century

The Rock Island passage, taken on June 20, 2016, from the International Space Station. St. Martin Island in Michigan is at the top. Rock Island and the much smaller Fish Island and Fisherman's Shoal below are in Wisconsin. These islands were the source of dispute during the U.S. Supreme Court cases Wisconsin v. Michigan, 295 U.S. 455 (1935) and Wisconsin v. Michigan, 297 U.S. 547 (1936). ISS048-E-3055 - View of Earth.jpg
The Rock Island passage, taken on June 20, 2016, from the International Space Station. St. Martin Island in Michigan is at the top. Rock Island and the much smaller Fish Island and Fisherman's Shoal below are in Wisconsin. These islands were the source of dispute during the U.S. Supreme Court cases Wisconsin v. Michigan, 295 U.S. 455 (1935) and Wisconsin v. Michigan, 297 U.S. 547 (1936).

In 1902, geodesy was suggested as a discipline supporting technical geography by supplying the "backbone, that main axis of indisputable values from which our network of triangulations may spread during the first steps in geographical map-making.". [40] In 1908, geography professor George D. Hubbard included technical geography alongside regional geography, physical geography, and general research as courses that should be taught at in U.S. university geography departments. [41] Hubbard specifies that technical geography refers to topics such as "mathematical or astronomical geography," as well as cartography. [41] A 1910 publication in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society (now the Geographical Review ) introduced the concept of "scientific geography" and discussed employing the scientific method to geographic concepts. [42] This publication proposed how a field of scientific geography could be organized, and specified that "Phytogeography," "Zoogeography," and "Anthropogeography" could be areas where scientific principles could be applied. [42] While this publication did not use the term technical geography in its description, several later publications explicitly link scientific and technical geography. [43] [44] By 1917, technical geography was included among courses taught at some British schools, alongside mathematics, chemistry, and other natural sciences. [45] [Note 2] As techniques and concepts in technical geography advanced, geographers began to lament the lack of understanding and use of more advanced geographic concepts in society and law. [33] Specifically, this became an issue during the 1930s Michigan-Wisconsin Boundary Case in the Supreme Court of the United States, where the border was not defined with specific technical geographic concepts. [33] During the 1940s, Oregon State University began focusing on technical geography as part of an applied geography program. [46]

Quantitative revolution

Technical geography differentiated more clearly during the quantitative revolution in the 1950s and 1960s. [1] [47] [48] Before this, the techniques and methods of handling spatial information were primarily focused on supporting human or physical geography, rather than a subject of study itself. World War II, which saw the extensive use of cartography and air photos, revolutionized these techniques and brought a new focus on the benefits they offered. [49] [50] In the years before the quantitative revolution, geography was generally fragmented and focused on descriptive approaches, and many United States universities were eliminating geography departments around the country. To address this, geographers began to debate the merits of more scientific and methods-based approaches to the discipline and advocate for the benefits these methods had to other technical courses. [51] [50] [52] [53] [54] [55] Some, such as the preeminent cartographer George Jenks went as far as to suggest that cartography should be a separate academic discipline from geography entirely, even if only at a few academic institutions. [49] [56] This approach was shunned by more traditional geographers, who viewed it as a deviation from how geographers had always viewed and interacted with maps. [57] While the best approach to the technical aspect of geography was heavily debated among geographers, geography departments at universities across the United States began to teach a more scientific approach to geography. [58] [59] [60]

Laws of geography
Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007 Waldo Tobler 2007.jpg
Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007

The quantitative revolution is primarily credited with shifting descriptive, or idiographic, geography to an empirical law-making, or nomothetic, geography. [61] The first of these laws was proposed by Waldo Tobler in a 1970 paper, and more have been proposed since. [62] Some geographers argue against the idea that laws in geography are necessary or even valid. [63] [64] [65] These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others. [64] [65] Examples of these laws include Tobler's first law of geography, Tobler's second law of geography, and Arbia's law of geography. [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] French geographer Ionel Haidu noted Tobler's first law of geography, and the associated concept of spatial autocorrelation, as central concepts to technical geography. [1]

20th century technologies

The 20th century saw the rapid emergence of technologies such as computers, satellites, and the corresponding software to operate them. These technologies rapidly changed how geographers operated, and significant effort went into considering how best to incorporate them into the discipline. [1] [20] [12] With these technologies came new disciplines and terms like analytical cartography, which focus on mathematical modeling and theoretical implications of cartography. [68] These terms often compete and overlap with each other and often originate in separate countries, such as geographic information science in the United States, geomatics in France, and geoinformatics in Sweden. [69] Three major technologies, remote sensing (RS), Geographic information systems (GIS), and the global positioning system (GPS) are highlighted as examples of technologies characterizing technical geography. [1]

Remote sensing
The TR-1 reconnaissance/surveillance aircraft Usaf.u2.750pix.jpg
The TR-1 reconnaissance/surveillance aircraft

Along with computers and GIS, new spatial data sources emerged during the quantitative revolution. Air photo technology was widely used in World War I and, in subsequent years, was applied to civilian endeavors. [70] A 1941 textbook titled "Aerophotography and Aerosurverying" stated the following in the first line of its preference:

"There is no longer any need to preach for aerial photography-not in the United States- for so widespread has become its use and so great its value that even the farmer who plants his fields in a remote corner of the country knows its value."

—  James W. Bagley, [70]

Remote sensing technology again advanced rapidly during World War II, and the techniques employed were rapidly assimilated as aids in geographical studies. [71] During the Cold War, advancements in photography, aircraft, and rockets only increased the effectiveness of remote sensing techniques. [72] As the technology became available to the general public, geographers were soon overwhelmed with large volumes of satellite and aerial images. New techniques were required to store, process, analyze, and use this new data source, birthing remote sensing scientists. [72]

Computer cartography and GIS
QGIS Interface Screenshot with Map of Median Income in Houston (2010) QGIS Interface Screenshot with Map of Median Income in Houston (2010).png
QGIS Interface Screenshot with Map of Median Income in Houston (2010)

Coinciding with the quantitative revolution was the emergence of early computers. The interdisciplinary nature of geography forces geographers to look at developments in other fields, and geographers tend to observe and adapt technological innovations from other disciplines rather than developing unique technologies to conduct geographic studies. [12] More than a decade after the first computers were developed, Waldo Tobler published the first paper detailing the use of computers in the map-making process titled "Automation and Cartography" in 1959. [73] While novel in terms of application, the process detailed by Tobler did not allow for storing or analyzing of geographic data. As computer technology progressed and better hardware became available, geographers rapidly adopted the technology to create maps. [16] [12] In 1960, Roger Tomlinson created the first geographic information system, which allowed for storing and analysis of spatial data within a computer. [74] These tools revolutionized the discipline of geography by contributing to the positivist scientific approaches to the discipline during the quantitative revolution. [75] In the 1985 book Technological Transition in Cartography , Mark Monmonier speculated that computer cartography facilitated by GIS would largely replace traditional pen and paper cartography. [12] Geographers began to heavily debate the place of GIS in geography, with some rejecting its methods and others heavily advocating for it. In response to critics, British geographer Stan Openshaw stated:

...if geographers reject GIS then it could fundamentally affect the outside world's perception of what geography is all about. Certainly, these external perceptions may well be based on a picture of geography as it once was, but nevertheless they cannot be ignored. "How could they be so foolish as to disown the very core of their discipline?"

—  Stan Openshaw, [76]

With the emergence of GIS, researchers rapidly began to explore methods to use the technology for various geographic problems. [77] [76] This led some geographers to declare the study of the computer-based methods their own science within geography. [77] GIS serves as the primary technology driving the field of geodesign by enabling real-time feedback in considering geography and landscape with community planning. [78]

Global Positioning System
GPS constellation system animation ConstellationGPS.gif
GPS constellation system animation

In 1978, the United States military launched the first satellites to enable the modern Global Positioning System (GPS), and the system's full capability was made available to the general public in 2000. [79] This facilitated a level of rapid acquisition of spatial coordinates that previously would have been expensive. Geographers began studying methods and applications for this data. [1] [80] In subsequent years, other countries have launched satellite constellations enabling Satellite navigation, including Russia's GLONASS, [81] China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, [82] and the European Union's Galileo navigation satellite system. [83]

New subdisciplines

During the quantitative revolution, several terms originated from the concept that the technologies developed during this period are a focus of independent study, including quantitative geography, geomatics, geoinformatics, and geographic information science. [69] These terms all overlap to some degree, but at least one study indicates they differ substantially enough to continue using. [69] The proliferation of these new terms may have been detrimental to their popularity, and it has been suggested that they were possibly created carelessly or hastily. [69] This has led to some confusion, and properly defining the areas covered by each term is an active field of research. [69] One paper on the topic stated the following:

With the appearance of the next new technologies, immediately, new proposals of new sciences, new subdisciplines, appear. Many authors with great ease announce the origination of a new science, frequently not caring for the proper justification of its name definition. The old definitions, developed in the context of previous technological conditions, remain in the shadow of new technologies, and are not modernised. The lack of specific terminological conditions, determined boundaries, or scopes of such definition use, encourages one to define the next terms, and the next science and research disciplines.

—  Artur Krawczyk, [69]
Quantitative geography

During the early days of the quantitative revolution, the term quantitative geography emerged as a subdiscipline within technical geography, focusing exclusively on new quantitative methods, such as spatial statistics, time geography (including visualizations such as the space-time prism and continuous transportation modeling approach), and GIS, for handling spatial-temporal data generated by novel technology like GPS and remote sensing. [84] [85] [86] [87] This part of technical geography focuses on spatial statistics and visualizing spatial information, emphasizing quantitative data and the scientific method. [1] [88]

Geomatics

In 1960, Bernard Dubuisson coined the term "géomatique" in French. English-speaking Canadians Pierre Gagnon and David Coleman translated the term as "geomatics", which was popularized in Canada through the 1980s and early 1990s. [69] Today, it is defined by the ISO/TC 211, an International Organization for Standardization committee focused on geographic information, as the discipline concerned with handling geographic data or geographic information. [89] In Canada, an effort was made to replace and absorb the term geodesy with geomatics; however, this was not successful, and globally, geodesy is generally considered "immutable" as a term. [69] Geomatics was included in the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under technical geography. [1] [2]

Geoinformatics

In the late 1980s, the term geoinformatics was coined by Swedish scientist Kjell Samuelson and later defined in the 1990s as the science of integrating spatial data derived from various technologies, such as remote sensing, GPS, and GIS. [69] It was later defined by geographer Michael DeMers to include processing of spatial data through the use of computers. [69] [90] This term has been described as being outside the branch of geography entirely and instead placed fully under the discipline of computer science, [69] while other sources place it under the branch of technical geography. [15] Sources have noted that there is no universally accepted definition of geoinformatics. [69]

Geographic Information Science

In the 1990s, the term Geographic Information Science (GIScience) was coined and popularized in the United States by geographer Michael Frank Goodchild to describe "the subset of information science that is about geographic information." [91] [69] [77] GIScience is mentioned explicitly as being separate from quantitative geography, [84] but under the branch of technical geography. [15] [92] In 1995, the University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) was established in the United States to support the field of GIScience, such as the creation of a "model curricula" by geographer Duane Marble to help educators teach GIScience. [93] [94] There has been significant debate around the term GIScience, including questioning if it can be considered a science. [95] Many geographers, including Michael Goodchild, continue to advance the use of the term today. [69]

Emergence of critical geography

In the same 1749 publication in which Cave discussed technical geography (Geography reformed: a new system of general geography, according to an accurate analysis of the science in four parts. The whole illustrated with notes) critical geography was considered an important part of the process within geography to correct errors on maps and other products to improve models of the world. [7] In the 1970s, critical geography took on the framework of critical theory and Marxist philosophy, and became an umbrella uniting various theoretical frameworks in geography, including Marxist geography, feminist geography, and radical geography (a branch of geography that advocates that geographic research should focus on social issues transforming society). [96] [97] [98] These frameworks were mostly advanced mostly by human geographers, leading to an observed gap between human and physical geographers. [99] [100] In response to the ideas and philosophies advanced during the quantitative revolution, particularly positivism and the emphasis on quantitative methods, the term critical geography was applied to ideological and theoretical criticisms of the methods and ideas of technical geographers. [57] [101] Other geographers, such as Yi-Fu Tuan, have criticized that geography for moving away from the abstract, unquantifiable aspects of place that are essential to the understanding of geography. [102]

In the history of geography since the quantitative revolution, theorists from critical geography are often viewed as in direct confrontation with those of technical and quantitative geography. [100] [103] Some, such as Peter Gould, argued that these criticisms were largely due to the difficulty in learning the emerging novel technologies. [84] [104] Some geographers, including Stewart Fotheringham, argue that many of the early criticisms of quantitative methods have been addressed with advances in technology, and persist due to ignorance of quantitative geography. [84] Geographer William Graf noted that some physical geographers suspect several of the philosophies underlying critical geography are "fundamentally anti-scientific." [84] [99]

21st century

As new technologies and methods applied by geographers, such as spatial analysis, cartography/GIS, remote sensing, and GPS, are widely applicable to various disciplines, concern grew among geographers that these other non-geographers in other disciplines might become better at using them than geographers. [1] In response to this, in 2006, the peer-reviewed journal Geographia Technica was established to serve as an outlet for research employing quantitative, technical, and scientific methods within geography. [1] [105] [43]

In a 2016 paper within this journal, Ionel Haidu stated:

"The risk is that non-geographers mastering these methods analyze the spatiotemporal data and information better than the geographers. That is why the need to deal with competition induced by other sciences claiming the geographic space as their subject of study and research becomes a serious challenge for geographers. Geographers need to test and adapt to the new methods, models and procedures and implement them in all fields and development trends of Geography. By these also, Technical Geography as a new line of research and professional training becomes a necessity."

— Ionel Haidu, [1]

Technical geography as a concept re-emerges to correct the historical trend in geography of adapting rather than developing new methods, technologies, and techniques for conducting geographic research by encouraging trained geographers to pursue this line of inquiry. [1] [12] While the use of the term "technical geography" itself has been debated since at least the 1700s, concepts within technical geography are often separated from the rest of geography when organizing and categorizing subfields in the discipline. [7] Terms such as "techniques of geographic analysis", [106] "geographic information technology", [107] are used synonymously with the term within textbooks.

Geographic information science and technology body of knowledge

As technology such as GIS began to dominate geography departments, the need to develop new curriculum to teach the fundamental concepts became apparent. [108] In response to this in 2006 the UCGIS published Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge (GISTBoK), building on the "Model curricula" of the mid 90s. [94] The GISTBoK is designed to inform curriculum teaching GIS and other geospatial technologies. [94] This book is noted as having expanded the term "GIScience" to "GIScience and technology" (GIS&T). [69]

UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems

In 2009, UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) employed the term technical geography to organize their literature related to geography, establishing a three-branch model of technical, human, and physical geography, referring to human and physical as the primary two. [2] [3] [6] [20] The benefit of this wording is that it is consistent with the other two branches and clearly places the discipline within geography. [109] The categorization of technical geography in the EOLSS as a branch is expanded upon by Ionel Haidu in his 2016 paper What is technical geography as being a consequence of cartography shifting from simply producing maps to producing spatial information, influenced by a culmination of information theory and technology like the World Wide Web. [1]

Sub-branches

Techniques and tools

Controversy, and criticism

Ontological

Attempts at subdividing geography have often been met with criticism. [3] Geography has a history spanning cultures and thousands of years and is described as a "mother science" from which more specialized disciplines emerge, resulting in a fragmented discipline. [2] [110] Other existing models to subdivide the discipline of geography into categories and focuses, including William Pattison's four traditions of geography, vary dramatically between publications and cultures. [3] [111] While the term technical geography has been put forward as a distinct branch and umbrella for these wider concepts, the terms used to describe the study of spatial information as a distinct category vary. [112] When subdividing the discipline within the literature, similar categories—such as "the Spatial Tradition", [111] "techniques of geographic analysis", [106] "geographic information and analysis", [113] "geographic information technology", [107] "geography methods and techniques", [114] "geographic information technology", [107] "scientific geography," [42] [44] [115] and "quantitative geography" [116] [117] —are used to describe the same, or similar, concepts as technical geography. [3] [112] Some of the discrepancy in terminology is due to different cultures and languages having their own method of organization; for example, the term "information geography" is popular in research from China to describe similar concepts. [112] It is closely associated with and sometimes used interchangeably with, the subfields of geographic information science and geoinformatics. [101] [118] [15] Each term has slightly differing definitions and scopes, and the best word choice has been debated in the literature since at least the 1700s when Cave defended the use of technical geography over practical geography. [7] However, many of these alternative terms or phrases are "grammatically awkward" and do not link the discipline explicitly as a branch of geography in the same way as technical geography. [113] This is an area of active scholarly debate, and any word choice will be inevitably met with criticism by others using a different model. [3]

More controversially, others deny the idea that the thought and techniques of geography constitute a new branch. This argument asserts that geography must be applied and, therefore, must focus on some subset of human or physical geography. [119] They also argue that there is not enough well-established peer-reviewed literature to back the term as a new branch. [119]

Gender bias

Some have brought allegations that the culture in technical geography has introduced gender bias into geography departments as the discipline is disproportionately practiced by men and seen by some as more masculine. [101] [120] Nadine Schuurman states that while there is not one reason for this discrepancy, but may be related to the broader perception of science as a "masculine domain," and the perception that tools, like GIS, employed by technical geographers are part of the military-industrial complex. [101]

Academic programs

Many academic institutions use, or have historically used, the term "technical geography" to either sub-divide their department or describe courses and content offered within their department. These include, but are not limited to:

Influential geographers

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ While Cave published the "Geography reformed: a new system of general geography, according to an accurate analysis of the science in four parts", how much he wrote or edited is unclear. Other authors are not given within the text.
  2. ↑ The 1917 English review article is unclear on what was included in these British technical geography courses.

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A geographic information system (GIS) consists of integrated computer hardware and software that store, manage, analyze, edit, output, and visualize geographic data. Much of this often happens within a spatial database; however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the body of knowledge of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomatics</span> Geographic data discipline

Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the widely used name for geomatic(s) engineering in the past. Geomatics was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waldo R. Tobler</span> American geographer

Waldo Rudolph Tobler was an American-Swiss geographer and cartographer. Tobler is regarded as one of the most influential geographers and cartographers of the late 20th century and early 21st century. He is most well known for coining what has come to be referred to as Tobler's first law of geography. He also coined what has come to be referred to as Tobler's second law of geography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Frank Goodchild</span> British-American geographer

Michael Frank Goodchild is a British-American geographer. He is an Emeritus Professor of Geography at the University of California, Santa Barbara. After nineteen years at the University of Western Ontario, including three years as chair, he moved to Santa Barbara in 1988, as part of the establishment of the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, which he directed for over 20 years. In 2008, he founded the UCSB Center for Spatial Studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geographic information science</span>

Geographic information science or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tobler's first law of geography</span> The first of several proposed laws of geography

The First Law of Geography, according to Waldo Tobler, is "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." This first law is the foundation of the fundamental concepts of spatial dependence and spatial autocorrelation and is utilized specifically for the inverse distance weighting method for spatial interpolation and to support the regionalized variable theory for kriging. The first law of geography is the fundamental assumption used in all spatial analysis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quantitative revolution</span> Paradigm shift in geography

In geography, the quantitative revolution (QR) was a paradigm shift that sought to develop a more rigorous and systematic methodology for the discipline. It came as a response to the inadequacy of regional geography to explain general spatial dynamics. The main claim for the quantitative revolution is that it led to a shift from a descriptive (idiographic) geography to an empirical law-making (nomothetic) geography. The quantitative revolution occurred during the 1950s and 1960s and marked a rapid change in the method behind geographical research, from regional geography into a spatial science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health geography</span>

Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Medical geography, a sub-discipline of, or sister field of health geography, focuses on understanding spatial patterns of health and disease in relation to the natural and social environment. Conventionally, there are two primary areas of research within medical geography: the first deals with the spatial distribution and determinants of morbidity and mortality, while the second deals with health planning, help-seeking behavior, and the provision of health services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spatial analysis</span> Formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties

Spatial analysis is any of the formal techniques which studies entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques using different analytic approaches, especially spatial statistics. It may be applied in fields as diverse as astronomy, with its studies of the placement of galaxies in the cosmos, or to chip fabrication engineering, with its use of "place and route" algorithms to build complex wiring structures. In a more restricted sense, spatial analysis is geospatial analysis, the technique applied to structures at the human scale, most notably in the analysis of geographic data. It may also be applied to genomics, as in transcriptomics data.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Field (geography)</span> Property that varies over space

In the context of spatial analysis, geographic information systems, and geographic information science, a field is a property that fills space, and varies over space, such as temperature or density. This use of the term has been adopted from physics and mathematics, due to their similarity to physical fields (vector or scalar) such as the electromagnetic field or gravitational field. Synonymous terms include spatially dependent variable (geostatistics), statistical surface ( thematic mapping), and intensive property (physics and chemistry) and crossbreeding between these disciplines is common. The simplest formal model for a field is the function, which yields a single value given a point in space (i.e., t = f(x, y, z) )

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography</span> Study of lands and inhabitants of Earth

Geography is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines."

Quantitative geography is a subfield and methodological approach to geography that develops, tests, and uses scientific, mathematical, and statistical methods to analyze and model geographic phenomena and patterns. It aims to explain and predict the distribution and dynamics of human and physical geography through the collection and analysis of quantifiable data. The approach quantitative geographers take is generally in line with the scientific method, where a falsifiable hypothesis is generated, and then tested through observational studies. This has received criticism, and in recent years, quantitative geography has moved to include systematic model creation and understanding the limits of their models. This approach is used to study a wide range of topics, including population demographics, urbanization, environmental patterns, and the spatial distribution of economic activity. The methods of quantitative geography are often contrasted by those employed by qualitative geography, which is more focused on observing and recording characteristics of geographic place. However, there is increasing interest in using combinations of both qualitative and quantitative methods through mixed-methods research to better understand and contextualize geographic phenomena.

<i>Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</i> Series of geography texts, 1975–1996

Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography (CATMOG), is a series of 59 short publications, each focused on an individual method or theory in geography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet GIS</span> Internet technologies regarding spatial data

Internet GIS, or Internet geographic information system (GIS), is a term that refers to a broad set of technologies and applications that employ the Internet to access, analyze, visualize, and distribute spatial data. Internet GIS is an outgrowth of traditional GIS, and represents a shift from conducting GIS on an individual computer to working with remotely distributed data and functions. Two major issues in GIS are accessing and distributing spatial data and GIS outputs. Internet GIS helps to solve that problem by allowing users to access vast databases impossible to store on a single desktop computer, and by allowing rapid dissemination of both maps and raw data to others. These methods include both file sharing and email. This has enabled the general public to participate in map creation and make use of GIS technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qualitative geography</span> Subfield of geographic methods

Qualitative geography is a subfield and methodological approach to geography focusing on nominal data, descriptive information, and the subjective and interpretive aspects of how humans experience and perceive the world. Often, it is concerned with understanding the lived experiences of individuals and groups and the social, cultural, and political contexts in which those experiences occur. Thus, qualitative geography is traditionally placed under the branch of human geography; however, technical geographers are increasingly directing their methods toward interpreting, visualizing, and understanding qualitative datasets, and physical geographers employ nominal qualitative data as well as quanitative. Furthermore, there is increased interest in applying approaches and methods that are generally viewed as more qualitative in nature to physical geography, such as in critical physical geography. While qualitative geography is often viewed as the opposite of quantitative geography, the two sets of techniques are increasingly used to complement each other. Qualitative research can be employed in the scientific process to start the observation process, determine variables to include in research, validate results, and contextualize the results of quantitative research through mixed-methods approaches.

George Frederick Jenks was an American geographer known for his significant contributions to cartography and geographic information systems (GIS). With a career spanning over three decades, Jenks played a vital role in advancing map-making technologies, was instrumental in enhancing the visualization of spatial data, and played foundational roles in developing modern cartographic curricula. The Jenks natural breaks optimization, based on his work, is still widely used in the creation of thematic maps, such as choropleth maps.

Arthur Getis was an American geographer known for his significant contributions to spatial statistics and geographic information science (GIScience). With a career spanning over four decades, Getis authored more than one hundred peer-reviewed papers and book chapters, greatly influencing GIScience and geography as a whole. The Getis-Ord family of statistics, one of the most commonly used in spatial analysis, is based on his and J. Keith Ord's work and is still widely used in the creation of hot spot maps.

Alexander Stewart Fotheringham is a British-American geographer known for his contributions to quantitative geography, geographic information science (GIScience), and spatial analysis. He holds a Ph.D. in geography from McMaster University and is professor of Geography at Florida State University. He has contributed to the literature surrounding spatial analysis and spatial statistics, particularly in the development of geographically weighted regression (GWR) and multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR).

Duane Francis Marble was an American geographer known for his significant contributions to quantitative geography and geographic information science (GIScience). Marble had a 40-year career as a professor at multiple institutions, retiring from the Ohio State University and holding a courtesy appointment as Professor of Geosciences at Oregon State University afterward. His early work was highly influential in computer cartography and is regarded as a significant contributor to the quantitative revolution in geography. His work on constructing a "Model Curricula" in GIScience is listed as the starting foundation built upon by the Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge.

Michael Francis Dacey was an American geographer known for his significant contributions to mathematical models in quantitative geography. Dacey founded the department of Mathematical Methods in the Social Sciences at Northwestern University, where he served as a senior associate dean in the College of Arts and Science, as well as a professor of geography, anthropology, and geological sciences. His publications were instrumental in establishing quantitative geography in mainstream geography.

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