Web GIS

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OGC standards help GIS tools communicate. Geoservices server with apps.png
OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.

Web GIS (also known as Web-Based GIS), or Web Geographic Information Systems , are GIS that employ the World Wide Web to facilitate the storage, visualization, analysis, and distribution of spatial information over the Internet. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] The World Wide Web, or the Web, is an information system that uses the internet to host, share, and distribute documents, images, and other data. [7] [5] [6] Web GIS involves using the World Wide Web to facilitate GIS tasks traditionally done on a desktop computer, as well as enabling the sharing of maps and spatial data. While Web GIS and Internet GIS are sometimes used interchangeably, they are different concepts. [5] [6] Web GIS is a subset of Internet GIS, which is itself a subset of distributed GIS, which itself is a subset of broader Geographic information system. [8] [9] [10] [11] The most common application of Web GIS is Web mapping, so much so that the two terms are often used interchangeably in much the same way as Digital mapping and GIS. However, Web GIS and web mapping are distinct concepts, with web mapping not necessarily requiring a Web GIS. [5]

Contents

The use of the Web has dramatically increased the effectiveness of both accessing and distributing spatial data, two of the most significant challenges of desktop GIS. [1] [12] [13] Many functions, such as interactivity, and dynamic scaling, are made widely available to end users by web services. [14] The scale of the Web can sometimes make finding quality and reliable data a challenge for GIS professionals and end users, with a significant amount of low-quality, poorly organized, or poorly sourced material available for public consumption. [13] [14] This can make finding spatial data a time consuming activity for GIS users. [13]

History

The history of Web GIS is very closely tied to the history of geographic information systems, Digital mapping, and the World Wide Web or the Web. The Web was first created in 1990, and the first major web mapping program capable of distributed map creation appeared shortly after in 1993. [9] [12] [15] This software, named PARC Map Viewer, was unique in that it facilitated dynamic user map generation, rather than static images. [15] [7] This software also allowed users to employ GIS without having it locally installed on their machine. [1] [15] The US federal government made the TIGER Mapping Service available to the public in 1995, which facilitated desktop and Web GIS by hosting US boundary data. [1] [16] In 1996, MapQuest became available to the public, facilitating navigation and trip planning, which quickly became a major utility on the early Web. [1] [14]

In 1997, Esri began to focus on their desktop GIS software, which in 2000 became ArcGIS. [17] This led to Esri dominating the GIS industry for the next several years. [12] In 2000 Esri launched the Geography Network, which offered some web GIS functions. In 2014, ArcGIS Online replaced this, and offers significant Web GIS functions including hosting, manipulating, and visualizing data in dynamic applications. [1] [2] [12]

Applications

Web GIS has numerous applications and functions and manages most distributed spatial information. [18] Diverse industries and disciplines, including mathematics, history, business and education can all leverage Web GIS to integrate geographic approaches to data. [18]

Census Demographic Data

The United States Census Department extensively uses Web GIS to distribute its boundary data, such as TIGER files, and demographics to the public. [1] [16] The "2020 Census Demographic Data Map Viewer" runs on an ESRI Web Map Application, and provides demographic information, such as population, race, and housing information at the state, county, and census tract levels. [19] [20]

Education

Literature has identified educational benefits and applications of Web GIS at the elementary, primary, and university levels of education. [18] [21] Using story maps and dashboards allows for new ways of displaying spatial data, and facilitates student interaction. [18] As Web GIS tools are often user friendly, teachers can create their own visualizations for the classroom, or even have students make their own to teach geographic concepts. [21]

Public Health

Web GIS has been used extensively in public health to communicate health data to the public and policymakers. [22] During the COVID-19 Pandemic, dashboard Web GIS Apps were popularized as a template for displaying health data by Johns Hopkins University, which was updated until March 10th, 2023. [22] [23] In the United States, all 50 state governments, the CDC, and others ultimately made use of these tools. [24] These dashboards displayed various information but generally included a choropleth map showing COVID-19 case data. [24]

Web Services

Web GIS has numerous functions, which can be divided into categories of Geospatial web services, including web feature services, web processing services, and web mapping services. [3] Geospatial web services are distinct software packages available on the World Wide Web that can be employed to perform a function with spatial data. [3]

Web feature services

Dynamic web page: example of server-side scripting (PHP and MySQL) Scheme dynamic page en.svg
Dynamic web page: example of server-side scripting (PHP and MySQL)

Web feature services allow users to access, edit, and make use of hosted geospatial feature datasets. [3]

Web processing services

Web processing services allow users to perform GIS calculations on spatial data. [3] Web processing services standardize inputs, and outputs, for spatial data within an internet GIS and may have standardized algorithms for spatial statistics.

Web mapping services

Web mapping involves using distributed tools to create and host both static and dynamic maps. [9] [3] [1] [2] It is different than desktop digital mapping in that the data, software, or both might not be stored locally and are often distributed across many computers. Web mapping allows for the rapid distribution of spatial visualizations without the need for printing. [25] They also facilitates rapid updating to reflect new datasets and allow for interactive datasets that would be impossible in print media. Web mapping was employed extensively during the COVID-19 pandemic to visualize the datasets in close to real-time. [26] [27] [28]

Web coverage services

This section is an excerpt from Web Coverage Service.[ edit ]
The Open Geospatial Consortium Web Coverage Service Interface Standard (WCS) defines Web-based retrieval of coverages – that is, digital geospatial information representing space/time-varying phenomena.

Web Map Tile Service

This section is an excerpt from Web Map Tile Service.[ edit ]
A Web Map Tile Service (WMTS) is a standard protocol for serving pre-rendered or run-time computed georeferenced map tiles over the Internet. The specification was developed and first published by the Open Geospatial Consortium in 2010. [29]

Standards

Open Geospatial Consortium

In terms of interoperability, the use of communication standards in Distributed GIS is particularly important. General standards for Geospatial Data have been developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). For the exchange of Geospatial Data over the web, the most important OGC standards are Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS).

Using OGC-compliant gateways allows for building very flexible Distributed GI Systems. Unlike monolithic GI Systems, OGC compliant systems are naturally web-based and do not have strict definitions of servers and clients. For instance, if a user (client) accesses a server, that server itself can act as a client of a number of further servers in order to retrieve data requested by the user. This concept allows for data retrieval from any number of different sources, providing consistent data standards are used. This concept allows data transfer with systems not capable of GIS functionality. A key function of OGC standards is the integration of different systems already existing and thus geo-enabling the web. Web services providing different functionality can be used simultaneously to combine data from different sources (mash-ups). Thus, different services on distributed servers can be combined for ‘service-chaining’ in order to add additional value to existing services. Providing a wide use of OGC standards by different web services, sharing distributed data of multiple organizations becomes possible.

Some important languages used in OGC-compliant systems are described in the following. XML stands for eXtensible Markup language and is widely used for displaying and interpreting data from computers. Thus the development of a web-based GI system requires several useful XML encodings that can effectively describe two-dimensional graphics such as maps SVG and, at the same time, store and transfer simple features GML. Because GML and SVG are both XML encodings, it is very straightforward to convert between the two using an XML Style Language Transformation XSLT. This gives an application a means of rendering GML, and in fact, is the primary way that it has been accomplished among existing applications today. [30] XML can introduce innovative web services, in terms of GIS. It allows geographic information to be easily translated in graphics and in these terms, scalar vector graphics (SVG) can produce high-quality dynamic outputs by using data retrieved from spatial databases. In the same aspect, Google, one of the pioneers in web-based GIS, has developed its own language, which also uses an XML structure. Keyhole Markup Language (KML) is a file format used to display geographic data in an earth browser, such as Google Earth, Google Maps, and Google Maps for mobile browsers "Google KML definition" . Retrieved 2007-11-21.

Geospatial Semantic Web

The Geospatial Semantic Web is a vision to include geospatial information at the core of the Semantic Web to facilitate information retrieval and information integration. [31] This vision requires the definition of geospatial ontologies, semantic gazetteers, and shared technical vocabularies to describe geographic phenomena. [32] The Semantic Geospatial Web is part of geographic information science. [3]

Criticism

All maps are simplifications of reality and, therefore, can never be perfectly accurate. [33] These inaccuracies include distortions introduced during projection, simplifications, and human error. While traditionally trained ethical cartographers try to minimize these errors and document the known sources of error, including where the data originated, Web GIS facilitates the creation of maps by non-traditionally trained cartographers and, more significantly, facilitates the rapid dissemination of their potentially erroneous maps. [16] [14] [34] While this democratization of GIS has many potential positives, including empowering traditionally disenfranchised groups of people, it also means that a wide audience can see bad maps. [25] [28] [33] [35] Further, malicious actors can quickly spread intentionally misleading spatial information while hiding the source. [33] This has significant implications, and contributes to the infodemic surrounding many topics, including the spread of potentially misleading information on the COVID-19 pandemic. [22] [24] Even a map made by a skilled cartographer has significant limitations over traditional distribution methods when using the Web. Among a variety of issues, computer monitors have a variety of different color settings and sizes. [14] [36] This renders ratio, representative fraction, and verbal scales useless, leaving only the scale bar. It also means a color choice selected by the cartographer might not be what the end-user experiences. [14] [36] These issues are not limited to cartography but are difficult to solve.

Due to the nature of the Web, using it for storing and computation is less secure than using local networks. [37] [38] [39] When working with sensitive data, Web GIS may expose an organization to the additional risk of having its data breached then if they use dedicated hardware and a Virtual Private Network to access that hardware remotely over the internet. [37] [38] [39] The convenience and relatively low cost of Web GIS often prevents this from being implemented.

As Web GIS is built on the web, it is subject to link rot phenomena. [24] This phenomenon can lead to previously available data being lost due to users changing the URL, physical hardware failures, or the content being deleted by the publisher. If the hardware and information accessed within a Web GIS is lost, "a single disk failure could be like the burning of the library at Alexandria." [40] One study found that 23% of COVID-19 Dashboards available on government sites on February of 2021 were no longer available at the previous URLs by April of 2023. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geographic information system</span> System to capture, manage and present geographic data

A geographic information system (GIS) consists of integrated computer hardware and software that store, manage, analyze, edit, output, and visualize geographic data. Much of this often happens within a spatial database, however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the body of knowledge of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Esri</span> Geospatial software & SaaS company

Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., doing business as Esri, is an American multinational geographic information system (GIS) software company headquartered in Redlands, California. It is best known for its ArcGIS products. With a 40% market share, Esri is the world's leading supplier of GIS software, web GIS and geodatabase management applications.

A coverage is the digital representation of some spatio-temporal phenomenon. ISO 19123 provides the definition:

In computing, the Open Geospatial Consortium Web Feature Service (WFS) Interface Standard provides an interface allowing requests for geographical features across the web using platform-independent calls. One can think of geographical features as the "source code" behind a map, whereas the WMS interface or online tiled mapping portals like Google Maps return only an image, which end-users cannot edit or spatially analyze. The XML-based GML furnishes the default payload-encoding for transporting geographic features, but other formats like shapefiles can also serve for transport. In early 2006 the OGC members approved the OpenGIS GML Simple Features Profile. This profile is designed both to increase interoperability between WFS servers and to improve the ease of implementation of the WFS standard.

A GIS file format is a standard for encoding geographical information into a computer file, as a specialized type of file format for use in geographic information systems (GIS) and other geospatial applications. Since the 1970s, dozens of formats have been created based on various data models for various purposes. They have been created by government mapping agencies, GIS software vendors, standards bodies such as the Open Geospatial Consortium, informal user communities, and even individual developers.

A GIS software program is a computer program to support the use of a geographic information system, providing the ability to create, store, manage, query, analyze, and visualize geographic data, that is, data representing phenomena for which location is important. The GIS software industry encompasses a broad range of commercial and open-source products that provide some or all of these capabilities within various information technology architectures.

A Web Map Service (WMS) is a standard protocol developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium in 1999 for serving georeferenced map images over the Internet. These images are typically produced by a map server from data provided by a GIS database.

Catalogue Service for the Web (CSW), sometimes seen as Catalogue Service - Web, is a standard for exposing a catalogue of geospatial records in XML on the Internet. The catalogue is made up of records that describe geospatial data, geospatial services, and related resources.

Digital Earth is the name given to a concept by former US vice president Al Gore in 1998, describing a virtual representation of the Earth that is georeferenced and connected to the world's digital knowledge archives.

Geospatial metadata is a type of metadata applicable to geographic data and information. Such objects may be stored in a geographic information system (GIS) or may simply be documents, data-sets, images or other objects, services, or related items that exist in some other native environment but whose features may be appropriate to describe in a (geographic) metadata catalog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Web mapping</span> Process of using the maps delivered by geographic information systems (GIS) in World Wide Web

Web mapping or an online mapping is the process of using, creating, and distributing maps on the World Wide Web, usually through the use of Web geographic information systems. A web map or an online map is both served and consumed, thus, web mapping is more than just web cartography, it is a service where consumers may choose what the map will show.

A geoportal is a type of web portal used to find and access geographic information and associated geographic services via the Internet. Geoportals are important for effective use of geographic information systems (GIS) and a key element of a spatial data infrastructure (SDI).

Distributed GIS refers to GI Systems that do not have all of the system components in the same physical location. This could be the processing, the database, the rendering or the user interface. It represents a special case of distributed computing, with examples of distributed systems including Internet GIS, Web GIS, and Mobile GIS. Distribution of resources provides corporate and enterprise-based models for GIS. Distributed GIS permits a shared services model, including data fusion based on Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) web services. Distributed GIS technology enables modern online mapping systems, Location-based services (LBS), web-based GIS and numerous map-enabled applications. Other applications include transportation, logistics, utilities, farm / agricultural information systems, real-time environmental information systems and the analysis of the movement of people. In terms of data, the concept has been extended to include volunteered geographical information. Distributed processing allows improvements to the performance of spatial analysis through the use of techniques such as parallel processing.

The Open Geospatial Consortium Web Coverage Service Interface Standard (WCS) defines Web-based retrieval of coverages – that is, digital geospatial information representing space/time-varying phenomena.

A geographic data model, geospatial data model, or simply data model in the context of geographic information systems, is a mathematical and digital structure for representing phenomena over the Earth. Generally, such data models represent various aspects of these phenomena by means of geographic data, including spatial locations, attributes, change over time, and identity. For example, the vector data model represents geography as collections of points, lines, and polygons, and the raster data model represent geography as cell matrices that store numeric values. Data models are implemented throughout the GIS ecosystem, including the software tools for data management and spatial analysis, data stored in a variety of GIS file formats, specifications and standards, and specific designs for GIS installations.

The Barrow Area Information Database (BAID) is designed to support Arctic science with a special focus on the research hubs of Barrow, Atqasuk, and Ivotuk on the North Slope of Alaska.

Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) and United States national security. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce geospatial data, to combine GEOINT with other forms of intelligence collection, and to perform highly developed analysis and visual production of geospatial data. Therefore, GIS produces up-to-date and more reliable GEOINT to reduce uncertainty for a decisionmaker. Since GIS programs are Web-enabled, a user can constantly work with a decision maker to solve their GEOINT and national security related problems from anywhere in the world. There are many types of GIS software used in GEOINT and national security, such as Google Earth, ERDAS IMAGINE, GeoNetwork opensource, and Esri ArcGIS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Open Geospatial Consortium</span> Standards organization

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards organization for geospatial content and location-based services, sensor web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing. It originated in 1994 and involves more than 500 commercial, governmental, nonprofit and research organizations in a consensus process encouraging development and implementation of open standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet GIS</span> Internet technologies regarding spatial data

Internet GIS, or Internet geographic information system (GIS), is a term that refers to a broad set of technologies and applications that employ the Internet to access, analyze, visualize, and distribute spatial data. Internet GIS is an outgrowth of traditional GIS, and represents a shift from conducting GIS on an individual computer to working with remotely distributed data and functions. Two major issues in GIS are accessing and distributing spatial data and GIS outputs. Internet GIS helps to solve that problem by allowing users to access vast databases impossible to store on a single desktop computer, and by allowing rapid dissemination of both maps and raw data to others. These methods include both file sharing and email. This has enabled the general public to participate in map creation and make use of GIS technology.

A Geodatabase is a proprietary GIS file format developed in the late 1990s by Esri to represent, store, and organize spatial datasets within a geographic information system. A geodatabase is both a logical data model and the physical implementation of that logical model in several proprietary file formats released during the 2000s. The geodatabase design is based on the spatial database model for storing spatial data in relational and object-relational databases. Given the dominance of Esri in the GIS industry, the term "geodatabase" is used by some as a generic trademark for any spatial database, regardless of platform or design.

References

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