Soil science

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A soil scientist examining horizons within a soil profile Soil sci.jpg
A soil scientist examining horizons within a soil profile

Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. [1]

Contents

The main branches of soil science are pedology ― the study of formation, chemistry, morphology, and classification of soil ― and edaphology ― the study of how soils interact with living things, especially plants. Sometimes terms which refer to those branches are used as if synonymous with soil science. The diversity of names associated with this discipline is related to the various associations concerned. Indeed, engineers, agronomists, chemists, geologists, physical geographers, ecologists, biologists, microbiologists, silviculturists, sanitarians, archaeologists, and specialists in regional planning, all contribute to further knowledge of soils and the advancement of the soil sciences. [1]

Soil scientists have raised concerns about how to preserve soil and arable land in a world with a growing population, possible future water crisis, increasing per capita food consumption, and land degradation. [2]

Fields of study

Soil occupies the pedosphere, one of Earth's spheres that the geosciences use to organize the Earth conceptually. This is the conceptual perspective of pedology and edaphology, the two main branches of soil science. Pedology is the study of soil in its natural setting. Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to soil-dependent uses. Both branches apply a combination of soil physics, soil chemistry, and soil biology. Due to the numerous interactions between the biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere that are hosted within the pedosphere, more integrated, less soil-centric concepts are also valuable. Many concepts essential to understanding soil come from individuals not identifiable strictly as soil scientists. This highlights the interdisciplinary nature of soil concepts.

Research

Exploring the diversity and dynamics of soil continues to yield fresh discoveries and insights. New avenues of soil research are compelled by a need to understand soil in the context of climate change, [3] [4] greenhouse gases, and carbon sequestration. [3] Interest in maintaining the planet's biodiversity and in exploring past cultures has also stimulated renewed interest in achieving a more refined understanding of soil.

Mapping

This section is an excerpt from Soil survey.[ edit ]
Soil survey, or soil mapping, is the process of classifying soil types and other soil properties in a given area and geo-encoding such information.

Classification

Map of global soil regions from the USDA Global soils map USDA.jpg
Map of global soil regions from the USDA

In 1998, the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) replaced the FAO soil classification as the international soil classification system. The currently valid version of WRB is the 4th edition, 2022. [5] The FAO soil classification, in turn, borrowed from modern soil classification concepts, including USDA soil taxonomy.

WRB is based mainly on soil morphology as an expression of pedogenesis. A major difference with USDA soil taxonomy is that soil climate is not part of the system, except insofar as climate influences soil profile characteristics.

Many other classification schemes exist, including vernacular systems. The structure in vernacular systems is either nominal (giving unique names to soils or landscapes) or descriptive (naming soils by their characteristics such as red, hot, fat, or sandy). Soils are distinguished by obvious characteristics, such as physical appearance (e.g., color, texture, landscape position), performance (e.g., production capability, flooding), and accompanying vegetation. [6] A vernacular distinction familiar to many is classifying texture as heavy or light. Light soil content and better structure take less effort to turn and cultivate. Light soils do not necessarily weigh less than heavy soils on an air dry basis, nor do they have more porosity.

History

The earliest known soil classification system comes from China, appearing in the book Yu Gong (5th century BCE), where the soil was divided into three categories and nine classes, depending on its color, texture and hydrology. [7]

Contemporaries Friedrich Albert Fallou (the German founder of modern soil science) and Vasily Dokuchaev (the Russian founder of modern soil science) are both credited with being among the first to identify soil as a resource whose distinctness and complexity deserved to be separated conceptually from geology and crop production and treated as a whole. As a founding father of soil science, Fallou has primacy in time. Fallou was working on the origins of soil before Dokuchaev was born; however Dokuchaev's work was more extensive and is considered to be the more significant to modern soil theory than Fallou's.

Previously, soil had been considered a product of chemical transformations of rocks, a dead substrate from which plants derive nutritious elements. Soil and bedrock were in fact equated. Dokuchaev considers the soil as a natural body having its own genesis and its own history of development, a body with complex and multiform processes taking place within it. The soil is considered as different from bedrock. The latter becomes soil under the influence of a series of soil-formation factors (climate, vegetation, country, relief and age). According to him, soil should be called the "daily" or outward horizons of rocks regardless of the type; they are changed naturally by the common effect of water, air and various kinds of living and dead organisms. [8]

A 1914 encyclopedic definition: "the different forms of earth on the surface of the rocks, formed by the breaking down or weathering of rocks". [9] serves to illustrate the historic view of soil which persisted from the 19th century. Dokuchaev's late 19th century soil concept developed in the 20th century to one of soil as earthy material that has been altered by living processes. [10] A corollary concept is that soil without a living component is simply a part of Earth's outer layer.

Further refinement of the soil concept is occurring in view of an appreciation of energy transport and transformation within soil. The term is popularly applied to the material on the surface of the Earth's moon and Mars, a usage acceptable within a portion of the scientific community. Accurate to this modern understanding of soil is Nikiforoff's 1959 definition of soil as the "excited skin of the sub aerial part of the Earth's crust". [11]

Areas of practice

Academically, soil scientists tend to be drawn to one of five areas of specialization: microbiology, pedology, edaphology, physics, or chemistry. Yet the work specifics are very much dictated by the challenges facing our civilization's desire to sustain the land that supports it, and the distinctions between the sub-disciplines of soil science often blur in the process. Soil science professionals commonly stay current in soil chemistry, soil physics, soil microbiology, pedology, and applied soil science in related disciplines.

One exciting effort drawing in soil scientists in the U.S. as of 2004 is the Soil Quality Initiative. Central to the Soil Quality Initiative is developing indices of soil health and then monitoring them in a way that gives us long-term (decade-to-decade) feedback on our performance as stewards of the planet. The effort includes understanding the functions of soil microbiotic crusts and exploring the potential to sequester atmospheric carbon in soil organic matter. Relating the concept of agriculture to soil quality, however, has not been without its share of controversy and criticism, including critiques by Nobel Laureate Norman Borlaug and World Food Prize Winner Pedro Sanchez.

A more traditional role for soil scientists has been to map soils. Almost every area in the United States now has a published soil survey, including interpretive tables on how soil properties support or limit activities and uses. An internationally accepted soil taxonomy allows uniform communication of soil characteristics and soil functions. National and international soil survey efforts have given the profession unique insights into landscape-scale functions. The landscape functions that soil scientists are called upon to address in the field seem to fall roughly into six areas:

There are also practical applications of soil science that might not be apparent from looking at a published soil survey.

Fields of application in soil science

Depression storage capacity

Depression storage capacity, in soil science, is the ability of a particular area of land to retain water in its pits and depressions, thus preventing it from flowing. [12] Depression storage capacity, along with infiltration capacity, is one of the main factors involved in Horton overland flow, whereby water volume surpasses both infiltration and depression storage capacity and begins to flow horizontally across land, possibly leading to flooding and soil erosion. The study of land's depression storage capacity is important in the fields of geology, ecology, and especially hydrology.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical geography</span> Study of processes and patterns in the natural environment

Physical geography is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. This focus is in contrast with the branch of human geography, which focuses on the built environment, and technical geography, which focuses on using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, and understand spatial information. The three branches have significant overlap, however.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pedology</span> Study of soils in their natural environment

Pedology is a discipline within soil science which focuses on understanding and characterizing soil formation, evolution, and the theoretical frameworks for modeling soil bodies, often in the context of the natural environment. Pedology is often seen as one of two main branches of soil inquiry, the other being edaphology which is traditionally more agronomically oriented and focuses on how soil properties influence plant communities. In studying the fundamental phenomenology of soils, e.g. soil formation, pedologists pay particular attention to observing soil morphology and the geographic distributions of soils, and the placement of soil bodies into larger temporal and spatial contexts. In so doing, pedologists develop systems of soil classification, soil maps, and theories for characterizing temporal and spatial interrelations among soils. There are a few noteworthy sub-disciplines of pedology; namely pedometrics and soil geomorphology. Pedometrics focuses on the development of techniques for quantitative characterization of soils, especially for the purposes of mapping soil properties whereas soil geomorphology studies the interrelationships between geomorphic processes and soil formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aridisol</span> Dry soil

Aridisols are a soil order in USDA soil taxonomy. Aridisols form in an arid or semi-arid climate. Aridisols dominate the deserts and xeric shrublands, which occupy about one-third of the Earth's land surface. Aridisols have a very low concentration of organic matter, reflecting the paucity of vegetative production on these dry soils. Water deficiency is the central defining characteristic of Aridisols. Also required is sufficient age to exhibit subsoil weathering and development. Limited leaching in aridisols often results in one or more subsurface soil horizons in which suspended or dissolved minerals have been deposited: silicate clays, sodium, calcium carbonate, gypsum, or soluble salts. These subsoil horizons can also be cemented by carbonates, gypsum, or silica. Accumulation of salts on the surface can result in salinization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxisol</span> Soil type known for occurring in tropical rain forests

Oxisols are a soil order in USDA soil taxonomy, best known for their occurrence in tropical rain forest within 25 degrees north and south of the Equator. In the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), they belong mainly to the ferralsols, but some are plinthosols or nitisols. Some oxisols have been previously classified as laterite soils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chernozem</span> Soil type; fertile black-coloured soil

Chernozem, also called black soil, regur soil or black cotton soil, is a black-colored soil containing a high percentage of humus and high percentages of phosphorus and ammonia compounds. Chernozem is very fertile soil and can produce high agricultural yields with its high moisture-storage capacity. Chernozems are a Reference Soil Group of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil classification</span> Systematic categorization of soils

Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gelisol</span> Permafrost soils

Gelisols are an order in USDA soil taxonomy. They are soils of very cold climates which are defined as containing permafrost within two meters of the soil surface. The word "Gelisol" comes from the Latin gelare meaning "to freeze", a reference to the process of cryoturbation that occurs from the alternating thawing and freezing characteristic of Gelisols.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Histosol</span> Soil consisting primarily of organic materials

In both the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) and the USDA soil taxonomy, a Histosol is a soil consisting primarily of organic materials. They are defined as having 40 centimetres (16 in) or more of organic soil material starting within 40 cm from the soil surface. In Soil Taxonomy, Gelisols key out before Histosols, and in WRB, Histosols key out before Cryosols. Therefore, organic permafrost soils belong to the Histosols in WRB and to the Gelisols (Histels) in Soil Taxonomy.

In USDA soil taxonomy, a Psamment is defined as an Entisol which consists basically of unconsolidated sand deposits, often found in shifting sand dunes but also in areas of very coarse-textured parent material subject to millions of years of weathering. This latter case is characteristic of the Guiana Highlands of northern South America. A Psamment has no distinct soil horizons, and must consist entirely of material of loamy sand or coarser in texture. In the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), most Psamments belong to the Arenosols. However, Psamments of fluviatile, lacustrine or marine origin belong to the Fluvisols.

Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living beings, particularly plants. It is one of two main divisions of soil science, the other being pedology. Edaphology includes the study of how soil influences humankind's use of land for plant growth as well as people's overall use of the land. General subfields within edaphology are agricultural soil science and environmental soil science. Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification.

This is an index of articles relating to soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gypsisol</span>

Gypsisols in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) are soils with substantial secondary accumulation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). They are found in the driest parts of the arid climate zone. In the USDA soil taxonomy they are classified as Gypsids (USDA Soil Taxonomy), in the Russian soil classification they are called Desert soils (USSR).

The early concepts of soil were based on ideas developed by a German chemist, Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), and modified and refined by agricultural scientists who worked on samples of soil in laboratories, greenhouses, and on small field plots. The soils were rarely examined below the depth of normal tillage. These chemists held the "balance-sheet" theory of plant nutrition. Soil was considered a more or less static storage bin for plant nutrients—the soils could be used and replaced. This concept still has value when applied within the framework of modern soil science, although a useful understanding of soils goes beyond the removal of nutrients from soil by harvested crops and their return in manure, lime, and fertilizer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cambisol</span> Type of soil

A Cambisol in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is a soil in the beginning of soil formation. The horizon differentiation is weak. This is evident from weak, mostly brownish discolouration and/or structure formation in the soil profile.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regosol</span> Highly Weathered Soil

A Regosol in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is very weakly developed mineral soil in unconsolidated materials. Regosols are extensive in eroding lands, in particular in arid and semi-arid areas and in mountain regions. Internationally, Regosols correlate with soil taxa that are marked by incipient soil formation such as Entisols in the USDA soil taxonomy or Rudosols and possibly some Tenosols in the Australian Soil Classification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Planosol</span> Soil type

A Planosol in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources is a soil with a light-coloured, coarse-textured, surface horizon that shows signs of periodic water stagnation and abruptly overlies a dense, slowly permeable subsoil with significantly more clay than the surface horizon. In the US Soil Classification of 1938 used the name Planosols, whereas its successor, the USDA soil taxonomy, includes most Planosols in the Great Groups Albaqualfs, Albaquults and Argialbolls.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andosol</span> Soils formed in volcanic ash and containing glass and amorphous colloidal materials

Andosols are soils found in volcanic areas formed in volcanic tephra. In some cases Andosols can also be found outside active volcanic areas. Andosols cover an estimated 1–2% of Earth's ice-free land surface. Andosols are a Reference Soil Group of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB). They are closely related to other types of soils such as Vitrosols, Vitrandosols, Vitrons and Pumice Soils that are used in different soil classification systems. The name comes from Japanese an and do, synonymous with kuroboku. In the USDA soil taxonomy (ST), many Andosols belong to the order of the Andisols. However, the definitions are different. Some Histosols (WRB) belong to the Andisols (ST), and some Andosols (WRB) belong to the Inceptisols (ST).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phaeozem</span> Type of soil

A Phaeozem in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is a dark soil with a high base status, but without a secondary carbonates within one metre of the soil surface. Most Phaeozems correlate with the Udolls (Mollisols) of the USDA soil taxonomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Friedrich Albert Fallou</span>

Friedrich Albert Fallou (1794–1877) was the German founder of modern soil science. While working as a lawyer and tax assessor, Fallou established himself as an independent scientist, a recognized authority in the natural history of farm and forest soil. In 1862 he advanced the idea that soil was separate in nature from geology. Intent on establishing the study of soils as an independent science, Fallou introduced the term pedology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dan H. Yaalon</span>

Dan Hardy Yaalon was an Israeli pedologist and soil scientist. He contributed to the fields of arid and Mediterranean pedology and paleopedology, as well as the history, sociology, and philosophy of soil science. Through a research career spanning over six decades (1950–2014), Yaalon was an active member of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) and the International Soil Science Society. He was awarded the Sarton Medal for his contribution to the history of science, and the Dokuchaev Award.

References

  1. 1 2 Jackson, J. A. (1997). Glossary of Geology (4. ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. p 604. ISBN   0-922152-34-9
  2. ↑ H. H. Janzen; et al. (2011). "Global Prospects Rooted in Soil Science". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 75 (1): 1. Bibcode:2011SSASJ..75....1J. doi: 10.2136/sssaj2009.0216 .
  3. 1 2 3 Ochoa-Hueso, R; Delgado-Baquerizo, M; King, PTA; Benham, M; Arca, V; Power, SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 129: 144–152. Bibcode:2019SBiBi.129..144O. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009. hdl: 10261/336676 . S2CID   92606851.
  4. ↑ Pielke, Roger (12 December 2005). "Is Soil an Important Component of the Climate System?". The Climate Science Weblog. Archived from the original on 8 September 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  5. 1 2 IUSS Working Group WRB (2022). "World Reference Base for Soil Resources, 4th edition". IUSS, Vienna.
  6. ↑ "Vernacular Systems". Archived from the original on 6 March 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
  7. ↑ Arnold, R. et al. (2009) A Handbook of Soil Terminology, Correlation and Classification Earthscan, London, England.
  8. ↑ Krasilnikov, N.A. (1958) Soil Microorganisms and Higher Plants Archived 12 November 2004 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ↑ Wikisource:The New Student's Reference Work/4-0310
  10. ↑ Buol, S. W.; Hole, F. D. & McCracken, R. J. (1973). Soil Genesis and Classification (First ed.). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. ISBN   978-0-8138-1460-5..
  11. ↑ C. C. Nikiforoff (1959). "Reappraisal of the soil: Pedogenesis consists of transactions in matter and energy between the soil and its surroundings". Science. 129 (3343): 186–196. Bibcode:1959Sci...129..186N. doi:10.1126/science.129.3343.186. PMID   17808687.
  12. ↑ Hansen, Bjarne, Per Schjønning, and Erik Sibbesen. "Roughness indices for estimation of depression storage capacity of tilled soil surfaces Archived 25 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine ." Soil and Tillage Research 52.1 (1999): 103-111.
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