Education policy

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Education policy consists of the principles and policy decisions that influence the field of education, as well as the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems. [1] Education governance may be shared between the local, state, and federal government at varying levels. Some analysts see education policy in terms of social engineering. [2]

Contents

Education takes place in many forms for many purposes through many institutions. Examples of such educational institutions may include early childhood education centers, kindergarten to 12th grade schools, two- and four-year colleges or universities, graduate and professional education institutes, adult-education establishments, and job-training schemes. The educational goals of these institutions influence education policy. [3] Furthermore, these education policies can affect the education people engage in at all ages.

Examples of areas subject to debate in education policy, specifically from the field of schools, include school size, class size, school choice, school privatization, police in schools, tracking, teacher selection, education and certification, teacher pay, teaching methods, curricular content, graduation requirements, school-infrastructure investment, and the values that schools are expected to uphold and model.

Issues in education policy also address problems within higher education. The Pell Institute analyzes the barriers experienced by teachers and students within community colleges and universities. These issues involve undocumented students, sex education, and federal-grant aides. [4]

Education policy analysis is the scholarly study of education policy. It seeks to answer questions about the purpose of education, the objectives (societal and personal) that it is designed to attain, the methods for attaining them and the tools for measuring their success or failure. Research intended to inform education policy is carried out in a wide variety of institutions and in many academic disciplines. For example, researchers are affiliated with schools and departments of education, public policy, psychology, economics, sociology, and human development. Additionally, sociology, political science, economics, and law are all disciplines that can be used to better understand how education systems function, what their impacts are, and how policies might be changed for different conditions. Education policy is sometimes[ when? ] considered a sub-field of social policy and public policy. Examples of education policy analysis may be found in such academic journals as Education Policy Analysis Archives and in university-policy centers such as the National Education Policy Center housed at the University of Colorado Boulder.

Education reform in the United States

Official seal of the United States Department of Education US Department Of Education.jpg
Official seal of the United States Department of Education

Over the past 30 years, policymakers have made a steady increase at the state and federal levels of government in their involvement of US schools. According to the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, state governments have the main authority on education. State governments spend most of their budgets funding schools, whereas only a small portion of the federal budget is allocated to education. [5] The federal government advances their role by building on state and local education policies. [6] Over time, the role of the federal government grew through federal education policies that affected the funding and evaluation of education. [7] For example, the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was established in 1958 to increase federal funding to schools, and the National Assessment of Educational Progress was created to track and compare student performance in academic subjects across the states. [6] Moreover, the United States Department of Education was created in 1979. [6]

Education reform is currently being seen as a "tangled web" due to the nature of education authority. Some education policies are being defined at either the federal, state or local level and in most cases, their authorities overlap one another. [8] This manner of authority has led many to believe there is an inefficiency within education governance. Compared to other OECD countries, educational governance in the US is more decentralized and most of its autonomy is found within the state and district levels. The reason for this is that US citizens put an emphasis on individual rights and fear federal government overreach. [9] A recent report by the National Center on Education and the Economy, believes that the education system is neither coherent nor likely to see improvements due to the nature of it. [10]

A critical race theory analysis of the history of education reform in the United States reveals the influence of systemic racism on educational policy. Historically, educational policy changes have resulted via progress from protest, and such progress met with pushback. [11]

In the state of Texas during the 84th Legislature, there were several education reform bills filed and sponsored by many education reform groups, such as Texans for Education Reform. Lawmakers want to create more involvement at the local level, and more transparency in our public schools. These groups are being pressured and opposed by teachers' unions saying that accountability and transparency policies are targeting educators, and that they are trying to hold them responsible for the education system.[ citation needed ]

Teacher policy

Teacher policy is education policy that addresses the preparation, recruitment, and retention of teachers. [12] A teacher policy is guided by the same overall vision and essential characteristics as the wider education policy: it should be strategic, holistic, feasible, sustainable, and context-sensitive. Overall objectives and major challenges to be addressed, the funding to achieve these objectives, the demographic parameters of the learner population and the human resources required to achieve universally accessible quality education should all be addressed in a comprehensive teacher policy. [13]

Nine key dimensions

Nine key dimensions are considered crucial to any comprehensive teacher policy: Teacher Recruitment and Retention, Teacher education (initial and continuing), Deployment, Career Structures/Paths, Teacher Employment and Working Conditions, Teach Reward and Remuneration, Teacher Standards, Teacher Accountability, and School Governance. [13]

Teacher Recruitment and Retention

An effective education system must have a safe way to attract, recruit and retain outstanding educators. There has been a growing demand for teachers but the supply continues to diminish and many of them leave their profession. [14] This development is a threat to the "academic and economic welfare of students". It affects learning and drain taxpayers’ money. [15] The federal and state governments along with the districts must invest in complete human capital systems. It is the best approach in preparing and retaining committed and capable mentors for the long-term. [16] A reasonable strategy in talent management for the education sector must focus on recruitment, development, and retention of intelligent and efficient teachers. [17]

Teacher Education (Initial and Continuing)

Teachers need to go back to school periodically to become better educators. [18] Good mentors can become outstanding by going further than textbooks. This is the logic behind continuing education. Technology in the form of web-based workshops and lectures will be helpful. [19] School administrators and district officials must push their teachers to make use of available resources and opportunities to continue the learning process. Conferences with workshops are also valuable because these activities provide teachers with tools for integration of technology in the classrooms and Continuing Professional Development Units in boosting their careers. [20] School administrators must ensure that teachers are not only competent in classroom management but also in protecting students from harm such as bullying. [21]

Gender equality

Twenty countries whose education sector plans were reviewed from a gender equality perspective Twenty countries whose education sector plans were reviewed from a gender equality perspective.svg
Twenty countries whose education sector plans were reviewed from a gender equality perspective

Quality and timely data and evidence are key factors for policy-making, planning and the delivery to advance gender equality in and through education. They can help countries to identify and analyse gendered patterns and trends, and better plan and target resources to address gender inequalities. They can also help to identify and inform interventions that influence participation, learning and empowerment, from early childhood to tertiary education and beyond. [22]

Though the SDG 4 monitoring framework is a step forward in the policy process, a complete monitoring framework for gender equality in and through education should include indicators that consider:

Efforts are also needed to track disparities in informal and non-formal learning contexts with a lifelong learning approach, and to ensure that data are collected on the most excluded. [22]


See also

Sources

Related Research Articles

Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. The meaning and education methods have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Historically, the motivations for reform have not reflected the current needs of society. A consistent theme of reform includes the idea that large systematic changes to educational standards will produce social returns in citizens' health, wealth, and well-being.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vocational education</span> Studies that prepares a person for a specific occupation

Vocational education is education that prepares people to a skilled craft as an artisan, trade as a tradesperson, or work as a technician. Vocational Education can also be seen as that type of education given to an individual to prepare that individual to be gainfully employed or self employed with requisite skill. Vocational education is known by a variety of names, depending on the country concerned, including career and technical education, or acronyms such as TVET and TAFE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adult education</span> Any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling

Adult education, distinct from child education, is a practice in which adults engage in systematic and sustained self-educating activities in order to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values. It can mean any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling, encompassing basic literacy to personal fulfillment as a lifelong learner. and to ensure the fulfillment of an individual.

Education in China is primarily managed by the state-run public education system, which falls under the Ministry of Education. All citizens must attend school for a minimum of nine years, known as nine-year compulsory education, which is funded by the government. Compulsory education includes six years of primary education, typically starting at the age of six and finishing at the age of twelve, followed by three years of junior secondary education. Middle schooling is followed by three years of high school, by the end of which secondary education is completed. Laws in China regulating the system of education include the Regulation on Academic Degrees, the Compulsory Education Law, the Teachers Law, the Education Law, the Law on Vocational Education, and the Law on Higher Education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Open educational resources</span> Open learning resource

Open educational resources (OER) are teaching, learning, and research materials intentionally created and licensed to be free for the end user to own, share, and in most cases, modify. The term "OER" describes publicly accessible materials and resources for any user to use, re-mix, improve, and redistribute under some licenses. These are designed to reduce accessibility barriers by implementing best practices in teaching and to be adapted for local unique contexts.

The history of education in Africa can be roughly divided into pre- and post- colonial periods. Since the introduction of formal education to Africa by European colonists, African education, particularly in West and Central Africa, is characterised by both traditional African teachings and European-style schooling systems. The state of education reflects not only the effects of colonialism, but instability resulting from and exacerbated by armed conflicts in many regions of Africa as well as fallout from humanitarian crises such as famine, lack of drinking water, and outbreaks of diseases such as malaria and Ebola, among others. Although the quality of education and the quantity of well-equipped schools and teachers has steadily increased since the onset of the colonial period, there are still evident numerous inequalities in the existing educational systems based on region, economic status, and gender.

Education in Iraq is administered by the Ministry of Education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Egypt</span> Overview of education in Egypt

In the 21st century, the Government of Egypt has given greater priority to improving the education system. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), Egypt is ranked 115 in the HDI, and 9 in the lowest 10 HDI countries in the Middle East and Northern Africa, in 2014. With the help of the World Bank and other multilateral organizations Egypt aims to increase access in early childhood to care and education and the inclusion of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) at all levels of education, especially at the tertiary level. The government is responsible for offering free education at all levels. The current overall expenditure on education is about 12.6 percent as of 2007. Investment in education as a percentage of GDP rose to 4.8 in 2005 but then fell to 3.7 in 2007. The Ministry of Education is also tackling a number of issues: trying to move from a highly centralized system to offering more autonomy to individual institutions, thereby increasing accountability. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Egypt is achieving 89.3% of what should be possible for the right to education, at their level of income.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teacher education</span> Training teachers to develop teaching skills

Teacher education or teacher training refers to programs, policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, approaches, methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community. The professionals who engage in training the prospective teachers are called teacher educators.

These organizations for higher education have a common purpose and mission for advocacy in numerous areas of both institutional management and the general public interest. The organizations have specific purpose for issues from faculty unionization to public policy research and service to institutions. Most are focused on the organization and governance of higher and tertiary education, but some are involved in service and research at all levels of education.

The State of Kuwait, located at the head of the Persian Gulf, supports an educational policy that seeks to provide an opportunity to all children, irrespective of their social class, including children with special needs. Kuwait was ranked 63rd on the Human Development Index report for 2011 by the United Nations Development Programme, placing Kuwait above the regional average.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Educational Policy Institute</span>

The Educational Policy Institute (EPI) is a research organization founded by its current president and CEO, Dr. Watson Scott Swail. EPI is dedicated to high-level research and policy analysis on a variety of educational issues, including the challenges that individuals and families from underserved communities face throughout their educational career.

Educational equity, also known as equity in education, is a measure of achievement, fairness, and opportunity in education. The study of education equity is often linked with the study of excellence and equity.

Despite significant progress, education remains a challenge in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Children complete on average two more years of schooling than their parents' generation. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 90s.

The UNESCO stated “education for sustainable development is a broad task that calls for the full involvement of multiple educational organizations and groups in bureaucracies and civil societies. These include Non-Governmental Organizations or NGOs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education and the LGBT community</span>

Historically speaking, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people have not been given equal treatment and rights by both governmental actions and society's general opinion. Much of the intolerance for LGBT individuals come from lack of education around the LGBT community, and contributes to the stigma that results in same-sex marriage being legal in few countries (31) and persistence of discrimination, such as in the workplace.

TVET refers to all forms and levels of education and training which provide knowledge and skills related to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life through formal, non-formal and informal learning methods in both school-based and work-based learning contexts. To achieve its aims and purposes, TVET focuses on the learning and mastery of specialized techniques and the scientific principles underlying those techniques, as well as general knowledge, skills and values.

Gender inequality in curriculum exposes indications that female and male learners are not treated equally in various types of curriculum. There are two types of curricula: formal and informal. Formal curricula are introduced by a government or an educational institution. Moreover they are defined as sets of objectives, content, resources and assessment. Informal curricula, also defined as hidden or unofficial, refer to attitudes, values, beliefs, assumptions, behaviours and undeclared agendas underlying the learning process. These are formulated by individuals, families, societies, religions, cultures and traditions.

Education sector responses to LGBT violence addresses the ways in which education systems work to create safe learning environments for LGBT students. Overall, education sector responses tend to focus on homophobia and violence linked to sexual orientation and gender identity/expression, and less on transphobia. Most responses focus in some way on diverse expressions of gender and support students to understand that gender may be expressed in a different way from binary models. Responses vary greatly in their scope ; duration ; and level of support that they enjoy.

School-related gender-based violence in Viet Nam refers to physical, sexual, psychosocial and verbal violence that takes place in the Vietnamese education system. Different forms of School-related gender-based violence (SRGBV) interact and overlap. Bullying, for instance, occurs when there is an imbalance of power between the “bully” and the “bullied” and can happen through physical contact, verbal attacks, social exclusion, and psychological manipulation. Students are bullied when they are repeatedly and intentionally exposed to harmful and/or aggressive behaviour that results in injury or discomfort.

References

  1. ↑ "Education Policy". www.rand.org. Retrieved 2022-06-07.
  2. ↑ Wilson, Harold E. (1978). Social Engineering in Singapore: Educational Policies and Social Change, 1819-1972. Institute of Southeast Asian studies. Singapore University Press. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  3. ↑ Roumell, Elizabeth Anne; Salajan, Florin D.; Todoran, Corina (July 2020). "A Survey of U.S. Education Policy Regarding the Education of Adults". Educational Policy. 34 (5): 785–815. doi:10.1177/0895904818802416. ISSN   0895-9048. S2CID   150146152.
  4. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed). Washington, DC: Author.
  5. ↑ Coggins, C. (2017). How to be heard: 10 lessons teachers need to advocate for their students and profession. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  6. 1 2 3 Kessinger, T. A. (2011). "Efforts toward educational reform in the united states since 1958: A review of seven major initiatives". American Educational History Journal. 38 (2): 263–276.
  7. ↑ Schueler, B. E.; Bleiberg, J. F. (2021). "Evaluating Education Governance: Does State Takeover of School Districts Affect Student Achievement?". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 41 (1): 162–192. doi:10.1002/pam.22338. S2CID   241349946.
  8. ↑ Manna, Paul; McGuinn, Patrick (2013). "The Tall Task of Education Governance Reform". Education Governance for the Twenty-First Century. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 375–392. ISBN   978-0-8157-2394-3. JSTOR   10.7864/j.ctt4cg877.20.
  9. ↑ Vergari, Sandra (2013). "Education Governance in Canada and the United States". Education Governance for the Twenty-First Century. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 231–251. ISBN   978-0-8157-2394-3. JSTOR   10.7864/j.ctt4cg877.14.
  10. ↑ 5-24 Paper Final V11 - Ncee.org. www.ncee.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Standing-on-the-Shoulders-of-Giants-An-American-Agenda-for-Education-Reform.pdf.
  11. ↑ Gillborn, D. (2013). "Racism as Policy: A Critical Race Analysis of Education Reforms in the United States and England". The Educational Forum. 78 (1): 26–41. doi:10.1080/00131725.2014.850982. S2CID   144670114.
  12. ↑ UNESCO. "Teacher policies: Preparation, Recruitment and Retention of Quality Teachers/Educators". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016.
  13. 1 2 UNESCO (2015). Teacher policy development guide: summary (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 14, 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-11-05.
  14. ↑ Strauss, Valerie (2017-11-27). "Analysis | Why it's a big problem that so many teachers quit — and what to do about it". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  15. ↑ Center, Foundation. "High Teacher Turnover Hurting Students, Study Finds". Philanthropy News Digest (PND). Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  16. ↑ "Solving the Teacher Shortage How to Attract and Retain Excellent Educators". Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  17. ↑ Douglas, Emily (17 February 2015). "7 Steps for a Balanced Recruitment AND Retention Strategy". Education Week. Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  18. ↑ "Continuing education must be in-depth". @GI_weltweit. Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  19. ↑ "The Value of Workshops and Continuing Education for Teachers". The EvoLLLution. 2012-08-10. Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  20. ↑ "Teachers' Continuing Professional Development at the University of Washington". faculty.washington.edu. Retrieved 2018-06-30.
  21. ↑ Burger, C., Strohmeier, D., Kollerová, L. (2022). "Teachers can make a difference in bullying: Effects of teacher interventions on students' adoption of bully, victim, bully-victim or defender roles across time". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 51 (12): 2312–2327. doi:10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6. ISSN   0047-2891. PMC   9596519 . PMID   36053439. S2CID   252009527.
  22. 1 2 UNESCO (2019). From access to empowerment: UNESCO strategy for gender equality in and through education 2019-2025. UNESCO. ISBN   978-92-3-100330-1.
  23. ↑ UNESCO. 2018. Global Education Monitoring Report Gender Review: Meeting Our Commitments to Gender Equality in Education. Paris, UNESCO.
  24. ↑ Unterhalter E. 2015. ‘Measuring Gender Inequality and Equality in Education’, Concept paper prepared for workshop Beyond Parity: Measuring Gender Equality in Education, London, 18–19 September 2015. London, University College of London, Institute of Education.

Information on education policy, OECD - Contains indicators and information about education policy in OECD countries.

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