Education in Hong Kong used to be largely modelled on that of the United Kingdom, particularly the English system. Since 2012, the overhaul of secondary school diploma has introduced changes to the number of school years as well as the two-tier general examinations. The DSE has replaced the old HKCEE (similar to the UK's GCSE) and the A-levels. Education policy in Hong Kong is overseen by the Education Bureau and the Social Welfare Department.
One of the earliest schools with reliable records was Li Ying College established in 1075 in present-day New Territories.[5] By 1860 Hong Kong had 20 village schools. Chinese who were wealthy did not educate their children in Hong Kong but instead sent them to major Chinese cities, such as Canton, for traditional Chinese education.[5]
The changes came with the arrival of the British in 1841. At first, Hong Kong's education came from Protestant and Catholicmissionaries who provided social services. Italian missionaries began to provide boy-only education to British and Chinese youth in 1843.[6]
In 1862 Frederick Stewart arrived in Hong Kong. His work, over a period of years, led to his being called, "The Founder of Hong Kong Education". He took up an appointment as the first headmaster of the first school to be founded and fully-funded by the Hong Kong Government, Queen's College (then named the Hong Kong Government Central School for Boys). He took a lead from various missionaries who had been active in Hong Kong education for the Chinese in the earlier post 1841 period and insisted on a bilingual and bicultural curriculum. (Half the day was spent on the Chinese language and the traditional Confucian curriculum and half the day was spent on the English language and what was then known as "useful knowledge" (i.e. western studies).[7]
Belilios Public School was a girls' secondary school founded in 1890 – the first government school in Hong Kong that provided bilingual education in English and Chinese. The push for Chinese education in a British system did not begin until the rise of social awareness of the Chinese community following the 1919 May Fourth Movement and the 1934 New Life Movement in China.[4][5] Educating the poor did not become a priority until they accounted for the majority of the population. Financial issues were addressed in the 1970s.[10]
In 1997 Keith Richburg of The Washington Post wrote that in the British era education was based on education in the United Kingdom, "largely apolitical", and did not emphasise topics related to politics nor civic affairs. The governor of Hong Kong had the right to bar, under law, "the dissemination of information, or expression of opinion, of a clearly biased political nature in schools" but Richburg stated that "That law was rarely used".[11] There were attempts to repeal said law prior to 1 July 1997.[11] By 1991 the education authorities wanted to have history classes with a positive view of China to make the handover smoother but some teachers with liberal views sought to have more critical views.[12]
In 1997, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region implemented the Target Oriented Curriculum (TOC) to introduce and spread the project learning in the national primary schools. To promote the interactions of work groups or individual students in a new learning environment, professors were engaged in the role of "consultant, facilitator, helper" and posers of questions. Ten years after, the 80% of the Hong Kong's institutes had left the traditional approach to education, mainly based on teachers and textbooks, to adopt an active and experiential learning pedagogy.[13]
The imposition of the Hong Kong national security law resulted in a decline in enrolment in traditionally prestigious Hong Kong schools, as many families with the financial means chose instead to send their children abroad. According to a survey conducted across 100 schools, between July and November, approximately 1,474 students left these schools. Around 50% of these students departed Hong Kong along with other family members.[14] In January 2023, the release of data for the academic year 2021–2022 indicated a significant increase in the number of students who chose to leave Hong Kong universities before completing their degrees. This trend was accompanied by a notable rise in the departure of lecturers, reaching a level that had not been observed in over 20 years.[15] In February 2023, reports highlighted that approximately 3,500 teachers in subsidised schools had left their positions during the previous academic year, with a majority opting to resign rather than retire.[16] Between 2021 and 2022, a report showed that around 28,000 students had left Hong Kong's school system.
In 2020, it was observed that references to sensitive subjects had been excluded from the majority of new textbooks in Hong Kong.[17] In subsequent years, the government implemented additional measures, including a requirement for foreign teachers working in Hong Kong to take an oath of allegiance.[18] Notably, new middle school textbooks disputed Hong Kong's status as a former colony, presenting it as Chinese territory occupied by Britain. These textbooks also asserted that the recent protests in Hong Kong were instigated by foreign entities. The curriculum for liberal studies classes underwent a shift, with a renewed emphasis on patriotism and national security, including the establishment of National Security Education Day.
In 2022, the Education Bureau introduced the Citizenship and Social Development subject, to replace Liberal Studies as one of the four core subjects in senior secondary education. As part of the subject, students will participate in fully subsidised field trips to mainland China. The trips range from two to five days in duration, with destinations such as Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Hunan. The itinerary for the two-day trips includes visits to the Memorial Museum of Sun Yat-sen's mansion and the former site of the Whampoa Military Academy in Guangzhou. Another two-day trip involves exploring the Deqing Palace, a historical site in Zhaoqing city, where students learn about the ancient imperial examination system and Confucianism.[19]
In 2023, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and Education University of Hong Kong announced that they would allow the use of artificial intelligence-enabled tools and large language models such as ChatGPT in coursework. In a letter to staff, HKUST said the decision on whether or not to allow students to use AI tools would be left to individual teaching staff. EdUHK's vice president John Lee said “The emergence of AI technology has brought about tremendous change to conventional teaching. Teachers should be more proactive than ever in serving as facilitators to foster students’ understanding about the strengths and constraints of AI, while promoting the responsible use of technology".[20]
In August 2023, officials from Hong Kong and Guangdong signed a framework agreement to strengthen education exchanges and cooperation between schools in the two regions. The agreement aimed to promote collaboration and exchanges in education, nurture talent for the development of the Greater Bay Area, and contribute to the development of both regions. It encourages higher education institutions to collaborate on education services, talent cultivation, and technology exchanges.
The agreement also focuses on enhancing cooperation in vocational education, promoting the establishment of sister schools, facilitating exchange activities, and improving the quality of such exchanges. The Vocational Training Council signed a memorandum of understanding with Guangdong to initiate collaborative projects and establish the GBA Vocational Education Park. The agreement also involves Guangdong supporting the VTC's mainland operation center and providing guidance for the GBA Explorer Trip program, which aims to enhance students' understanding of GBA developments.[21]
Pre-school education
Pre-school education in Hong Kong is not free, in principle, and fees are payable by pupils' parents. However, parents whose children have the right of abode in Hong Kong can pay for part of their fees with a voucher from the government under the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS). In 2013, the amount of subsidy under the PEVS is $16,800.
Primary and secondary education
Every child in Hong Kong is required by law to attend a primary school after the child has attained the age of 6. They are also required to attend a secondary school after primary education and is completed before he/she attains the age of 18. However, a student who has completed up to Form Three of secondary education is exempted. Education in the public sector is free. Public primary schools admit students via the Primary One Admission System.
Secondary education is separated into junior and senior years. In junior years, the curriculum is a broad one where history, geography, science are studied alongside subjects that have already been studied at primary schools. In senior years, this becomes more selective and students have a choice over what and how much is to be studied. Almost all schools but PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College and its feeder junior secondary college have both sessions.[22]
The commerce stream in secondary schools is considered vocational. Students in the Commerce stream would usually enter the workplace to gain practical work experience by this point. Further education pursuits in the Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education or universities abroad are common. The Manpower Development Committee (MDC) advises the government on coordination, regulation, and promotion of the sector. Also, the Vocational Training Council (VTC) ensures the level of standard is met through the "Apprentice Ordinance". The VTC also operates three skills-centres for people with disabilities. Secondary schools in Hong Kong are going to be cut down to only two years due to the switch in the government.
International institutions provide both primary and secondary education in Hong Kong. International institutions teach with English as the primary language, with some sections bilingual in German, French and Chinese. International school students rarely take Hong Kong public exams. British students take GCSE, IGCSE, and A-levels. US students take APs. Increasingly, international schools follow the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IBDP) and enter universities through non-JUPAS direct entry. International students apply on a per-school basis, whereas Hong Kong local students submit one application for multiple local universities as a JUPAS applicant.
Medium of instruction
In the 1990s, following the handover of Hong Kong, most secondary schools in the territory switched their medium of instruction from English to Chinese (Cantonese). The remaining 114 schools (about 20–30%) are known as EMI schools and are often viewed as prestigious.[24][25] EMI schools also have far better university acceptance rates than CMI schools; hence, EMI schools are heavily sought after by parents and are often labelled as 'elite schools'. From 2009 onwards, schools which use Chinese as medium of instruction were also allowed to have classes that use English as medium of instruction.[26]
In addition, the Hong Kong government has pushed the use of Putonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese) as medium of instruction in the Chinese language subject (PMIC). As of 2015–2016, about 16.4% primary schools and 2.5% secondary schools have adopted Putonghua, instead of Cantonese, for teaching the Chinese language subject across all grades and classes. An additional 55.3% primary schools and 34.4% secondary schools have adopted Putonghua in some of their grades and classes. The remaining 28.3% primary schools and 63.1% secondary schools still use Cantonese in all their grades and classes.[27]
Higher education in Hong Kong has historically been exclusive. Fewer than 20,000 students were offered government-funded places in 1975, though the figure has been growing over the past decades. Many continue their studies abroad as shown in table below.[6]
Bachelor's degrees issued in Hong Kong have honours distinctions: first class, second class upper division, second class lower division, and third class. Since the introduction of a new academic structure in 2012, the duration of undergraduate programmes in Hong Kong has been switched from three years to four years.
HKU, CUHK, and HKUST are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide, while PolyU and CityU are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide.[28][29][30] HKUST, PolyU, and CityU are also ranked among the best young universities worldwide.
Self-financing institutions – Statutory university
Hong Kong Metropolitan University (HKMU; formerly the Open University of Hong Kong, OUHK; founded in 1989, granted university status in May 1997) – The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 1145)
Self-financing institutions – Approved post secondary colleges
Approved post secondary colleges are educational institutes registered under the Post Secondary Colleges Ordinance (Cap. 320). This kind of colleges are allowed to give out academic awards at bachelor's degree level or above as well as to include the Chinese words "學院" or "大學", or the English word "University" in the registration name with prior approval from the Chief Executive-in-Council.
Adult education is popular, since it gives middle age adults a chance to obtain a tertiary degree. The concept was not common several decades ago. The EMB has commissioned two non-profit school operators to provide evening courses. The operators have fee remission schemes to help adult learners in need of financial assistance. Adult education courses also provide Vocational Training Council through universities and private institutions. The Open University of Hong Kong is one establishment for mature students. Several secondary schools operate adult education sessions, the first being Cheung Sha Wan Catholic Secondary School, while PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College offers associate degree and joint-degree programmes.
Special education
However, since special education is accused of being a measure of discrimination and separation, the British education suggests that integrated education should be the leading factor, and many special schools will be forced to transform. Since the 2000s, special schools in Hong Kong have also followed this trend, except for moderately to severely intellectual disability students, other types of special schools need to be transformed into mainstream schools to accept ordinary students.
Education for immigrant and non-Cantonese-speaking children
The Education Bureau provides education services for immigrant children from mainland China and other countries, as well as non-Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong children. Free "Induction Programmes" of up to 60 hours have been offered to NAC by non-government organisations. The EMB also provides a 6-month full-time "Initiation Programme" incorporating both academic and non-academic support services, for NAC before they are formally placed into mainstream schools. The social issue aroused the interest of academic researchers to publish work about NACs' adaptation and school performance
In 2017 the Hong Kong government schools had 6,267 Pakistani students, the largest non-local bloc, and 818 white students of any national background. In 2013 there were 556 white students of any background in Hong Kong government schools. Historically, non-local students from other Asian countries attended government schools, while white students attended private schools. In 2018 Angie Chan of The New York Times reported that increasing numbers of white students were enrolling in Cantonese-medium government schools. This was due to increasing tuitions from international schools which received influxes of wealthy mainland Chinese and desires from parents for white students to learn Cantonese.[31]
International education
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC)[32] listed Hong Kong as having 175 international schools.[33] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation."[33] This definition is used by publications including The Economist.[34]
While the ISC definition allows for an objective number it does also mean that the count of "international schools" is often considerably higher than the number of schools that would be relevant to an international, expatriate audience. WhichSchoolAdvisor.com,[35] a review-based site that looks exclusively at schools attended by expatriates, has 100 international schools listed in its directory,[36] less than the ISC count, but still 17 more than its great city rival, Singapore. Of these, 24 schools follow in part or in full a UK-based curriculum[37] (largely the I/GCSE up to 16, A Level post 16), while others follow a UK/International Baccalaureate blend with the IB Diploma offered for post-16 study. Some 33 schools in Hong Kong currently offer the Diploma.[38]
Hong Kong's international schools are not subject to independent inspection reports by the territory's regulator, meaning word of mouth tends to drive reputation as to what are considered to be the best performing international schools in the territory. A large number of parent forums exist that help parents new to Hong Kong make an often very difficult decision.
Private, international schools come at very different prices. The most expensive school is currently Li Po Chun United World College of Hong Kong, with average annual fees of HKD $360,000 (US$46,450.13). These fees are skewed by the fact that this school is boarding only, and only for the students studying the last two years of the IB. The next most expensive school in the territory is the Chinese International School (CIS), an IB continuum, bi-lingual school (Mandarin and English).[39] Its average fees across year groups is currently HKD 216,500 (US$27,935).[40]
In 2018 Angie Chan reported that increasing numbers of Chinese students, including Hong Kong Chinese and mainland Chinese, were enrolling in private international schools. In 2017 the percentage of foreign students in such institutions was under 75%, with Hong Kong Chinese being 21.6% and mainland Chinese being about 4%. In previous eras virtually the entire international school student body was foreign.[31]
There are top-rated exempted courses where courses offered overseas are collaborated with local institutions in Hong Kong to broaden the scope of tertiary education in Hong Kong.[42]MIT has an innovation node in Hong Kong.[43]
Schools run by charitable or religious organisations with government funding according to the now defunct Grant Code. Currently receiving government aid in accordance with the Codes of Aid [44],which also apply for the Subsidized schools.
Run by non-government organisations. HKSAR Government has encouraged non-government primary and secondary schools which have attained a sufficiently high education standard to join the DSS by providing subsidies to enhance the quality of private school education since 1991/92 school year. Under the scheme, schools are free to decide their curriculum, fees and entrance requirements, under the following conditions:
The number of students doing the local curriculum (HKDSE) must be no less than half of all students.
All students must participate in the local TSA examinations.
Caput schools
Subsidised
Subsidies are provided according to the number of pupils admitted.
Private schools
Private
Run by private organisations and mainly accept local Chinese children. Admissions are based more on academic merit than on financial ability; they teach in English and in Cantonese.
Private international schools
Private
Provide an alternative to the mainstream education, in exchange for much higher tuition fees although it is recently[when?] deemed[who?] as high-pressure as local mainstream education.[which?][citation needed] The schools teach streams in English and in the language of its sponsoring nation, e.g., French, German, Japanese, etc.
Provide an alternative to the high-pressured mainstream education. Tuition fees are lower than many other international schools as many ESF schools enjoy subvention by the Hong Kong Government to educate English-speaking children who cannot access the local system.
In the past, many primary schools in Hong Kong adopted a half-day schooling system to accommodate the high demand for education. This arrangement involved splitting the school day into two sessions, with separate headmasters overseeing each session. To compensate for the reduced school hours, students were occasionally required to attend school on alternate Saturdays. In line with government policy, half-day schooling was gradually phased out as resources allowed. Most schools have now transitioned towards full-day school systems.[45]
In recent years, the decline in birth rate has had a significant impact on primary schools, leading to class reductions.[46] This has sparked debates on the potential benefits of promoting small class teaching. Proponents posit that implementing small class sizes would help alleviate the pressures faced by teachers and address the challenges arising from reduced student-to-teacher ratios, class sizes, and school capacities.[47]
Discipline
Good behaviour has always been emphasised in Hong Kong, to the point that it is sometimes said to hinder pupils' development. Misbehaviour is recorded and shown on school reports. The Education Bureau (EDB) provides the 'Guidelines for Student Disciplines' to schools to as guidance in creating a disciplined education environment. It outlines the principles and policies regarding student discipline, the organisational structure of a school discipline team, the roles and responsibilities of the discipline master and mistress, and discipline strategies illustrated with case studies.[48]
Education in Hong Kong has often been described as 'spoon-fed'. Cram schools in Hong Kong have also become a popular standard in parallel to regular education. Teachers focus on helping students getting high scores in the major exams and heavily rely on textbook knowledge rather than exchanging ideas and essence of the subjects.[49]
With the advent of education reform there is a greater emphasis on group projects, open-ended assignments on top of traditional homework. The current workload of a primary student in Hong Kong includes approximately two hours of schoolwork nightly. Along with extra-curricular activities, Hong Kong's education has become synonymous for leaning towards quantity. As early as March 1987, education advisory inspectors became concerned with the excessive amounts of "mechanical work and meaningless homework".[50] In particular, history education has been recognised as ineffective, with critics claiming that the curriculum is not capable of delivering a sense of identity. Not only that, students have to memorise the whole history texts, thereby indicating that rote-learning has greater priority than absorbing and understanding material.[50]
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) is a public research university in Sai Kung District, New Territories, Hong Kong. Founded in 1991, it was the territory's third institution to be granted university status, and the first university without any precursory existence upon its formation. It occupies a 60-hectare (150-acre) seaside site in Tai Po Tsai, Clear Water Bay Peninsula, and has established a satellite campus in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
Education in China is primarily managed by the state-run public education system, which falls under the Ministry of Education. All citizens must attend school for a minimum of nine years, known as nine-year compulsory education, which is funded by the government.
Education in Malaysia is overseen by the Ministry of Education. Although education is the responsibility of the Federal Government, each state and federal territory has an Education Department to co-ordinate educational matters in its territory. The main legislation governing education is the Education Act 1996.
A state school, public school, or government school is a primary or secondary school that educates all students without charge. They are funded in whole or in part by taxation and operated by the government of the state. State-funded schools are global with each country showcasing distinct structures and curricula. Government-funded education spans from primary to secondary levels, covering ages 4 to 18. Alternatives to this system include homeschooling, private schools, charter schools, and other educational options
An examination board is an organization that sets examinations, is responsible for marking them, and distributes the results. Some are run by governmental entities; some are run as not-for-profit organizations.
Most schools in Macau are private or subsidized schools. As of the 2023–2024 school year, there were 76 schools in Macau, including eight public schools and 68 private schools. Of the 73 schools that offered formal education, six were not a part of Macau's free education network. As of 2006 many of the schools in Macau are operated by Catholic organizations.
The English Schools Foundation (ESF) is an organisation that runs 22 international schools in Hong Kong. It is Hong Kong's largest English-medium organisation of international schools. It was founded in 1967 with the passage of the English Schools Foundation Ordinance.
The Education Bureau (EDB) is a policy bureau responsible for formulating and implementing education policies in Hong Kong.
Sha Tin Methodist College, abbreviated as STMC, is a government-subsidised secondary school in Sha Tin, Hong Kong. Founded in 1983, it is sponsored by The Methodist Church, Hong Kong to serve the local community together with churches and service centres in the Sha Tin parish.
King's College, often referred to simply as King's or K.C., is a boys' government-operated secondary school located at 63A Bonham Road, Mid-levels, Hong Kong. It serves as a secondary education institution for pupils from forms 1–6. The school building has been a declared monument of Hong Kong since 2 December 2011.
Ying Wa Girls' School is a HKCCCC secondary day school for girls in Mid-Levels, in Hong Kong. The campus is located at 76 Robinson Road, Mid-levels. The enrolment currently stands at slightly under 1,000 students. It is one of the 22 Grant Schools in Hong Kong. Ying Wa Girls' School is a selective secondary school and its graduates are known for their distinguished performances at public examinations. The current Principal of the School is Mr. Francis Kwan. He succeeded Mrs. Ruth Lee as the Principal in 2015.
Sacred Heart Canossian College is a Catholic, all-girls' school established at Robinson and Caine Roads, Mid-Levels, Hong Kong. Founded in 1860, the school currently serves under 2,000 students and has been identified as one of the most prestigious schools in Hong Kong.
Marymount Secondary School is an all-girls Roman Catholic secondary school located on Blue Pool Road in Happy Valley, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong. The medium of instruction is English. It is associated with a primary school, Marymount Primary School.
Educational Television (ETV) is a series of educational television programmes jointly produced by Radio Television Hong Kong and the Education Bureau of Hong Kong. ETV has been an auxiliary means for teaching the primary and secondary school curriculum on television since the early 1970s.
The Korean International School of Hong Kong is an international school located in Lei King Wan, Sai Wan Ho, Hong Kong. It is located near Grand Promenade and the Tai Koo Shing area, which are home to a large number of Hong Kong's Korean families. The international section was founded in 1994.
Education in Nigeria is overseen by the Federal Ministry of Education. The local authorities take responsibility for implementing state-controlled policy regarding public education and state schools. The education system is divided into Kindergarten, Primary education, Secondary education, and Tertiary education. Nigeria's federal government has been dominated by instability since declaring independence from Britain, and as a result, a unified set of education policies is yet to be successfully implemented. Regional differences in quality, curriculum, and funding characterize the education system in Nigeria. Currently, Nigeria possesses the largest population of out-of-school learning youths in the world. The educational systems in Nigeria are divided into two the public where the student only pays for Parents Teachers Association (PTA) while the private where students pay school fees and some other fees like sports, exam fees, computer fees etc. and they are costly
The German Swiss International School is an international school in Hong Kong established in 1969 by German and Swiss families looking for a bilingual German–English education in an international setting. Beginning with 73 students in its inaugural year, GSIS now has approximately 1,300 students from over 30 countries.
Harrow International School of Hong Kong is a British international boarding school and day school in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong. When it opened on 3 September 2012, it became the first British boarding school in Hong Kong. It was also the third in the Harrow family of schools in the Asia region in association with Harrow School and the John Lyon School in London. The school provides a British independent style of education from Early Years to Y13.
Macau Anglican College is a private Christian school in Taipa, Macau. Macau Anglican College was established in 2002 and provides education from kindergarten to senior secondary. It is an Anglican Foundation College, meaning it receives professional advice and financial backing from the Anglican Church in Hong Kong.
↑ The Chinese Repository, Article III 'Religious and Charitable Institutions in Hongkong: Churches, Chapels, Schools, Colleges, Hospital, etc' August 1843 issue, p.440
1 2 3 Sweeting, Anthony. [1990] (1990). Education in Hong Kong, pre-1841 to 1941. p.87, Hong Kong University Press. ISBN962-209-258-6
1 2 Bray, Mark. Koo, Ramsey. [2005] (2005) Education and Society in Hong Kong and Macao: Comparative Perspectives on Continuity and Change. Hong Kong: Springer Press. ISBN1-4020-3405-9
↑ Bickley, Gillian. [1997] The Golden Needle: The Biography of Frederick Stewart (1836–1889). Hong Kong: David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University. ISBN962-8027-08-5
↑ Ingrams, Harold, Hong Kong (Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London: 1952), p.213.
↑ Beijing, Didi Tang (2020). "Tiananmen massacre 'erased from Hong Kong textbooks'". Three out of the five textbooks submitted for government review make no mention of the movement at all, according to hk01.com, a local news site that has reviewed the contents. Of the remaining two versions, one has removed the mention of the bloody crackdown when troops were sent in to quash the movement
↑ Woo, Jacqueline Chak-Kei. "Parental choice in the new education market: aided-turn-direct subsidy scheme schools in focus" (Chapter 3). In: Tse, Thomas Kwan-Choi and Michael H. Lee (editors). Making Sense of Education in Post-Handover Hong Kong: Achievements and challenges. Taylor & Francis, 10 November 2016. ISBN1317439392, 9781317439394. Start: p. 40. CITED: p. 51.
↑ Li, David C.S. Multilingual Hong Kong: Languages, Literacies and Identities (Volume 19 of Multilingual Education). Springer Science+Business Media, 12 January 2017. ISBN3319441957, 9783319441955. p. 279.
↑ Chong, Chan, Dennis, Joyee (9 July 2012). "Students 'spoon-fed'". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 4 August 2015.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
1 2 Vickers, Edward. [2003] (2003). In Search of an Identity: The Politics of History Teaching in Hong Kong, 1960s–2000. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN0-415-94502-X
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