Chemistry education

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Children mix chemicals in test tubes as part of a hands-on chemistry education program in Samara, Russia. Festival of Science in Samara.jpg
Children mix chemicals in test tubes as part of a hands-on chemistry education program in Samara, Russia.

Chemistry education (or chemical education) is the study of teaching and learning chemistry. It is one subset of STEM education or discipline-based education research (DBER). [1] Topics in chemistry education include understanding how students learn chemistry and determining the most efficient methods to teach chemistry. There is a constant need to improve chemistry curricula and learning outcomes based on findings of chemistry education research (CER). Chemistry education can be improved by changing teaching methods and providing appropriate training to chemistry instructors, within many modes, including classroom lectures, demonstrations, and laboratory activities.

Contents

Importance

Chemistry education is important because the field of chemistry is fundamental to our world. The universe is subject to the laws of chemistry, while human beings depend on the orderly progress of chemical reactions within their bodies. [2] Described as the central science, chemistry connects physical sciences with the life sciences and applied sciences. Chemistry has applications in food, medicine, industry, the environment, and other areas. [3] Learning chemistry allows students to learn about the scientific method and gain skills in critical thinking, deductive reasoning, problem-solving, and communication. Teaching chemistry to students at a young age can increase student interest in STEM careers. [4] Chemistry also provides students with many transferable skills that can be applied to any career. [5]

Teaching strategies

The most common method of teaching chemistry is lecture with a laboratory component. Laboratory courses became a central part of the chemistry curriculum towards the end of the 19th century. The German scientist Justus von Liebig plays a major role in shifting the model of lecture with demonstrations to one that includes a laboratory component. Liebig was one of the first chemists to conduct a laboratory and his methodology became widespread in the United States due to the efforts of Eben Horsford and Charles W. Eliot. After working in Liebig's laboratory, Horsford returned to the United States and helped establish the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University. The school was modeled after Liebig's methodology and established the first chemistry laboratory course. Two years later, Charles W. Eliot started to volunteer at the laboratory. Eliot's interests in the laboratory grew, and he eventually took charge of it. Eliot was later elected as Harvard's president in 1869. Eliot also served other powerful roles in education, which allowed him to influence the widespread adoption of laboratory methods. [6] Today, the American Chemical Society on Professional Training requires students to gain 400 hours of laboratory experience, outside of introductory chemistry, to get a bachelor's degree. Similarly, the Royal Society of Chemistry requires students to gain 300 hours of laboratory experience to get a bachelor's degree. [7]

However, since the twenty-first century, the role of laboratory courses in the chemistry curriculum has been questioned in major journals. [7] [8] [9] [10] The main argument against laboratory courses is that there is little evidence for their impact on student learning. Researchers are asking questions such as "why do we have laboratory work in the curriculum? What is distinctive about laboratory work that cannot be met elsewhere in the curriculum?" [7] Researchers are asking for evidence that the investment of space, time and resources in chemistry laboratories provides value to student learning.

Theories of education

There are several different philosophical perspectives that describe how the work in chemistry education is carried out.

Practitioner's Perspective

The first is what one might call a practitioner's perspective, wherein the individuals who are responsible for teaching chemistry (teachers, instructors, professors) are the ones who ultimately define chemistry education by their actions.

Perspective of chemical educators

A second perspective is defined by a self-identified group of chemical educators, faculty members and instructors who, as opposed to declaring their primary interest in a typical area of laboratory research (organic, inorganic, biochemistry, etc.), take on an interest in contributing suggestions, essays, observations, and other descriptive reports of practice into the public domain, through journal publications, books, and presentations. Dr. Robert L. Lichter, then-Executive Director of the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, speaking in a plenary session at the 16th Biennial Conference on Chemical Education (recent BCCE meetings: ,), posed the question of why do terms like 'chemical educator' even exist in higher education, when there is a perfectly respectable term for this activity, namely, 'chemistry professor.' One criticism of this view is that few professors bring any formal preparation in or background about education to their jobs, and so lack any professional perspective on the teaching and learning enterprise, particularly discoveries made about effective teaching and how students learn.

Demonstration in a chemistry class Max Diukin IMG 9178.jpg
Demonstration in a chemistry class

Chemistry education research (CER)

A third perspective is chemistry education research (CER). CER is a type of discipline-based education research (DBER) focusing on the teaching and learning of chemistry. An overarching goal for chemistry education researchers is to help students develop 'expert-like' (coherent and useful) knowledge of chemistry. [11] Thus, the field of CER involves investigating:

and developing instruments to measure the above. [1] [11]

Following the example of physics education research (PER), CER tends to take the theories and methods developed in pre-college science education research, which generally takes place in Schools of Education, and applies them to understanding comparable problems in post-secondary settings (in addition to pre-college settings). Like science education researchers, CER practitioners tend to study the teaching practices of others as opposed to focusing on their own classroom practices. Chemistry education research is typically carried out in situ using human subjects from secondary and post-secondary schools. Chemistry education research utilizes both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. [12] [13] Quantitative methods typically involve collecting data that can then be analyzed using various statistical methods. Qualitative methods include interviews, observations, document analysis, journaling, and other methods common to social science research. [12] [14]

The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL)

There is also an emergent perspective called The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL). [15] Although there is debate on how to best define SoTL, one of the primary practices is for mainstream faculty members (organic, inorganic, biochemistry, etc.) to develop a more informed view of their practices, how to carry out research and reflection on their own teaching, and about what constitutes deep understanding in student learning. [16]

Systems thinking approach

In 2017, the Systems Thinking Into Chemistry Education (STICE) project proposed a systems thinking approach for (post)-secondary education in general chemistry education. [17] Chemistry education has largely relied on a reductionist approach, which involves studying a complex topic as the sum of its parts. A reductionist approach is beneficial in increasing our knowledge of the natural world, however, it is insufficient in tackling global issues—sustainability, climate change, pollution, poverty, etc. Due to the limitations of a reductionist approach, researchers are suggesting a complementary systems thinking approach in chemistry education. [18] [19] A systems thinking approach involves learning concepts with a holistic perspective, allowing chemistry students to think critically about how chemistry relates to larger, societal issues. Researchers believe that a reductionist approach, complemented by a systems thinking approach, can produce global-minded chemists. [18]

Academic journals

Several journals publish papers related to chemistry education. Some journals focus on particular education levels (schools vs. universities) while others cover all education levels. Journal articles range from reports on classroom and laboratory practices to educational research.

Research in chemistry education is also published in journals in the wider science education field.

Degrees offered in chemistry

The U.S. offers chemistry education degrees at the undergraduate and graduate levels. The following degrees are offered:

Additionally, colleges and universities offer chemistry degrees with a specialization in chemistry education. Some examples are:

Undergraduate students who are interested in chemistry can major in the following areas:

See also

Related Research Articles

Science education is the teaching and learning of science to school children, college students, or adults within the general public. The field of science education includes work in science content, science process, some social science, and some teaching pedagogy. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students through the entire course of their K-12 education and beyond. The traditional subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, and human sciences.

A concept inventory is a criterion-referenced test designed to help determine whether a student has an accurate working knowledge of a specific set of concepts. Historically, concept inventories have been in the form of multiple-choice tests in order to aid interpretability and facilitate administration in large classes. Unlike a typical, teacher-authored multiple-choice test, questions and response choices on concept inventories are the subject of extensive research. The aims of the research include ascertaining (a) the range of what individuals think a particular question is asking and (b) the most common responses to the questions. Concept inventories are evaluated to ensure test reliability and validity. In its final form, each question includes one correct answer and several distractors.

A flame test is relatively quick test for the presence of some elements in a sample. The technique is archaic and of questionable reliability, but once was a component of qualitative inorganic analysis. The phenomenon is related to pyrotechnics and atomic emission spectroscopy. The color of the flames is understood through the principles of atomic electron transition and photoemission, where varying elements require distinct energy levels (photons) for electron transitions.

A soda geyser is a physical reaction between a carbonated beverage, usually Diet Coke, and Mentos mints that causes the beverage to be expelled from its container. The candies catalyze the release of gas from the beverage, which creates an eruption that pushes most of the liquid up and out of the bottle. Lee Marek and "Marek's Kid Scientists" were the first to publicly demonstrate the experiment on the Late Show with David Letterman in 1999. Steve Spangler's televised demonstration of the eruption in 2005 became popular on YouTube, launching a chain of several other Diet Coke and Mentos experiment viral videos. Experiments carried out at altitudes ranging from below sea level in Death Valley to the summit of Pikes Peak have demonstrated that the reaction works better at higher elevations.

Acid–base extraction is a subclass of liquid–liquid extractions and involves the separation of chemical species from other acidic or basic compounds. It is typically performed during the work-up step following a chemical synthesis to purify crude compounds and results in the product being largely free of acidic or basic impurities. A separatory funnel is commonly used to perform an acid-base extraction.

In condensed matter physics and inorganic chemistry, the cation-anion radius ratio can be used to predict the crystal structure of an ionic compound based on the relative size of its atoms. It is defined as the ratio of the ionic radius of the positively charged cation to the ionic radius of the negatively charged anion in a cation-anion compound. Anions are larger than cations. Large sized anions occupy lattice sites, while small sized cations are found in voids. In a given structure, the ratio of cation radius to anion radius is called the radius ratio. This is simply given by .

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haloform reaction</span> Chemical reaction involving repeated halogenation of an acetyl group (–COCH3)

In chemistry, the haloform reaction is a chemical reaction in which a haloform is produced by the exhaustive halogenation of an acetyl group, in the presence of a base. The reaction can be used to transform acetyl groups into carboxyl groups or to produce chloroform, bromoform, or iodoform. Note that fluoroform can't be prepared in this way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue bottle experiment</span> Color-changing redox chemical reaction

The blue bottle experiment is a color-changing redox chemical reaction. An aqueous solution containing glucose, sodium hydroxide, methylene blue is prepared in a closed bottle containing some air. Upon standing, it spontaneously turns from blue to colorless due to reduction of methylene blue by the alkaline glucose solution. However, shaking the bottle oxidizes methylene blue back into its blue form. With further shaking, this color-change cycle can be repeated many times. This experiment is a classic chemistry demonstration that can be used in laboratory courses as a general chemistry experiment to study chemical kinetics and reaction mechanism. The reaction also works with other reducing agents besides glucose and other redox indicator dyes besides methylene blue.

Liebig–Pasteur dispute is the dispute between Justus von Liebig and Louis Pasteur on the processes and causes of fermentation.

Krystle McLaughlin is a Caribbean-American structural biophysicist. She is an assistant professor of chemistry at Vassar College.

Nina Matheny Roscher (1938—2001) was an American chemist and advocate for women and minorities in science. She also researched the history of women in chemistry, publishing the book Women Chemists (1995). She served as professor and chair of the chemistry department at American University in Washington, D.C. She received the ACS Award for Encouraging Women into Careers in the Chemical Sciences (1996) and the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring (1998).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rick L. Danheiser</span> American organic chemist

Rick L. Danheiser is an American organic chemist and is the Arthur C. Cope Professor of Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and chair of the MIT faculty. His research involves the invention of new methods for the synthesis of complex organic compounds. Danheiser is known for the Danheiser annulation and Danheiser benzannulation reactions.

Angelica M. Stacy is the associate vice provost for the faculty, and professor of chemistry, at University of California, Berkeley. Stacy was one of the first women to receive tenure in the college of chemistry at UC Berkeley.

Deon Terrell Miles is an American chemist who is professor of chemistry at the Sewanee: The University of the South. His research considers the development of functionalised nanoparticles and chemistry education.

Emilie Ringe is an American chemist who is an assistant professor at the University of Cambridge. She was selected by Chemical & Engineering News as one of its "Talented Twelve" young scientists in 2021.

Celest Rohlfing is a retired American chemist and the former chief operating officer at the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

Anne Michelle Baranger is an American chemist who is professor of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley. She is the associate dean for diversity, equity, and inclusion. Her research considers the experiences of chemistry students and ways to increase the number of students studying STEM subjects.

Marcy Hamby Towns is an American chemist who is Professor of Chemistry Education at Purdue University. Her research considers the development of innovative ways to teach undergraduate chemistry. She was awarded the IUPAC Distinguished Women in Chemistry Award in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rachel Mamlok-Naaman</span> Chemist

Rachel Mamlok-Naaman is an academic based in Israel. She specializes in chemistry education.

Ann Carol Kimble-Hill is an American biochemist who is a Professor of Biochemistry at the Indiana University School of Medicine. Her research considers the structure-function relationships of membrane proteins and lipids, and the role of Type 2 diabetes in disparities associated with breast cancer. She was made a Fellow of the American Chemical Society in 2023.

References

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  2. ↑ Munroe, Charles E. (January 1925). "Importance of teaching chemistry". Journal of Chemical Education. 2 (1): 67. Bibcode:1925JChEd...2...67M. doi:10.1021/ed002p67. ISSN   0021-9584.
  3. ↑ "Areas of Chemistry". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
  4. ↑ August 20, Posted on; Outreach, 2018-Community; Uncategorized (2018-08-20). "The Importance of Teaching Kids Chemistry". Chemceed. Retrieved 2021-03-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ "Chemistry | University Career Center". careercenter.umich.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
  6. ↑ Sheppard, Keith; Horowitz, Gail (April 2006). "From Justus von Liebig to Charles W. Eliot: The Establishment of Laboratory Work in U.S. High Schools and Colleges". Journal of Chemical Education. 83 (4): 566. Bibcode:2006JChEd..83..566S. doi:10.1021/ed083p566. ISSN   0021-9584.
  7. 1 2 3 Seery, Michael K. (2020-06-09). "Establishing the Laboratory as the Place to Learn How to Do Chemistry". Journal of Chemical Education. 97 (6): 1511–1514. Bibcode:2020JChEd..97.1511S. doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00764 . ISSN   0021-9584.
  8. ↑ Bretz, Stacey Lowery (2019-02-12). "Evidence for the Importance of Laboratory Courses". Journal of Chemical Education. 96 (2): 193–195. Bibcode:2019JChEd..96..193B. doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00874 . ISSN   0021-9584.
  9. ↑ Hofstein, Avi; Mamlok-Naaman, Rachel (2007-04-01). "The laboratory in science education: the state of the art". Chemistry Education Research and Practice. 8 (2): 105–107. doi:10.1039/B7RP90003A. ISSN   1756-1108.
  10. ↑ Reid, Norman; Shah, Iqbal (2007-04-01). "The role of laboratory work in university chemistry". Chemistry Education Research and Practice. 8 (2): 172–185. doi:10.1039/B5RP90026C. ISSN   1756-1108.
  11. 1 2 Cooper, Melanie M.; Stowe, Ryan L. (2018-06-27). "Chemistry Education Research—From Personal Empiricism to Evidence, Theory, and Informed Practice". Chemical Reviews. 118 (12): 6053–6087. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00020 . ISSN   0009-2665. PMID   29893111.
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  14. ↑ Heady, J.E.; Coppola, B.P.; Titterington, L.C. (2001). "3. Assessment Standards". In Siebert, E.D.; McIntosh, W.J. (eds.). College pathways to the science education standards. NSTA Press. pp. 57–63. ISBN   978-0-87355-193-9.
  15. ↑ Coppola, B.P. (2007). "The Most Beautiful Theories…". Journal of Chemical Education. 84 (12): 1902–11. Bibcode:2007JChEd..84.1902C. doi: 10.1021/ed084p1902 .
  16. ↑ Coppola, B.P.; Jacobs, D. (2002). "Is the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning New to Chemistry?". In Huber, M.T.; Morreale, S. (eds.). Disciplinary styles in the scholarship of teaching and learning: exploring common ground. American Association for Higher Education. pp.  197–216. ISBN   978-1-56377-052-4.
  17. ↑ "IOCD: Systems Thinking in Chemistry Education - STICE Project". www.iocd.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  18. 1 2 Orgill, MaryKay; York, Sarah; MacKellar, Jennifer (2019-12-10). "Introduction to Systems Thinking for the Chemistry Education Community". Journal of Chemical Education. 96 (12): 2720–2729. Bibcode:2019JChEd..96.2720O. doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00169 . ISSN   0021-9584.
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  25. ↑ "Chemistry Education Research Graduate Programs in the United States".
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