Educational research |
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Disciplines |
Core ideas |
Curricular domains |
Methods |
Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of evidence and data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods [1] [2] [3] and various aspects of education including student learning, interaction, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics. [4]
Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and systematic. [2] [4] However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures. [1] [5] As a result, the value and quality of educational research has been questioned. Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines including psychology, economics, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. [1] [3] Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines. [3] [5] Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which the study was conducted. [3]
Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research: [2]
There are different approaches to educational research. One is a basic approach, [1] also referred to as an academic research approach. [2] Another approach is applied research [1] or a contract research approach. [2] These approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research.
Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth [2] or the development of educational theory. [1] Researchers with this background "design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories". [1] Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.
The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research. [1] Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian and pragmatic as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice. [2] Applied researchers are often commissioned by a sponsor and are responsible for addressing the needs presented by their employer. [2] The goal of this research is "to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings". [1]
The following are several defining characteristics written by Gary Anderson to compare basic (academic) and applied (contract) research. [2]
Basic (Academic) Research | Applied (Contract) Research | |
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1 | Is sponsored by an agency committed to the general advancement of knowledge. | Is sponsored by an agency with a vested interest in the results. |
2 | Results are the property of society and the research community. | Results become the property of the sponsor. |
3 | Studies rely on the established reputations of the researchers and are totally under their control. | Studies follow explicit terms of reference developed by the sponsor to serve the sponsor's needs. |
4 | Budget allocations are generally based on global proposals and accounting is left to the researchers. | Budget accountability is directly related to the sponsor and relates to agreed terms of reference, time frames and methodologies. |
5 | The conduct of research is based on 'good faith' between funder and researcher. | The work is contractual between sponsor and researcher. |
6 | The research produces findings and conclusions, but rarely recommendations except those related to further research needs. | The research includes applied recommendations for action. |
7 | Academic research tends to extend an identifiable scholarly discipline. | By its nature, contract research tends to be interdisciplinary. |
8 | Academic research is typically focused on a single set of testable hypotheses. | Contract research frequently analyzes the consequences of alternative policy options. |
9 | Decision-rules relate to theoretically-based tests of statistical significance. | Decision-rules relate to predetermined conventions and agreements between the sponsor and the researcher. |
10 | Research reports are targeted to other specialized researchers in the same field. | Research reports are intended to be read and understood by lay persons. |
The basis for educational research is the scientific method. [1] The scientific method uses directed questions and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process. [1] In this scenario questions are answered by the analysis of data that is collected specifically for the purpose of answering these questions. [2] Hypotheses are written and subsequently proved or disproved by data which leads to the creation of new hypotheses. The two main types of data that are used under this method are qualitative and quantitative. [1] [5] [6]
Qualitative research uses the data which is descriptive in nature. Tools that educational researchers use in collecting qualitative data include: observations, conducting interviews, conducting document analysis, and analyzing participant products such as journals, diaries, images or blogs. [1]
Quantitative research uses data that is numerical and is based on the assumption that the numbers will describe a single reality. [1] Statistics are often applied to find relationships between variables.
There also exists a new school of thought that these derivatives of the scientific method are far too reductionist in nature. [5] Since educational research includes other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, science, and philosophy [1] [3] and refers to work done in a wide variety of contexts [3] it is proposed that researchers should use "multiple research approaches and theoretical constructs." [5] This could mean using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods as well as common methodology from the fields mentioned above. In social research this phenomenon is referred to as triangulation (social science). [7] This idea is well summarized by the work of Barrow in his text An introduction to philosophy of education:
Since educational issues are of many different kinds and logical types, it is to be expected that quite different types of research should be brought into play on different occasions. The question therefore is not whether research into teaching should be conducted by means of quantitative measures (on some such grounds as that they are more 'objective') or qualitative measures (on some such grounds as that they are more 'insightful'), but what kind of research can sensibly be utilized to look into this particular aspect of teaching as opposed to that. [8]
In analysis of mixed methods, the following ways might be used;
Discipline-based education research (DBER) is an interdisciplinary research enterprise that "investigates learning and teaching in a discipline [normally from the STEM fields] from a perspective that reflects the discipline's priorities, worldview, knowledge, and practices." [13] Examples include:
Educational research can also be organized by the subject or object of focus, as in school, teacher, student, etc., the relationship between actors such as student-teacher, teacher-principal, school-home, etc. by educational outcomes, such as motivation, learning of core subjects, learning of 21st century skills, attitudes, etc.
In response to increased attention to the replicability of experimental findings in the sciences and medicine, in 2014, Educational Researcher published a review of the entire publication history of the 100 education journals with the highest five-year impact factors that found that out of 164,589 articles published only 221 articles (or 0.13 percent) were attempted replications of previous studies. Only 28.5 percent of the replication studies were direct replications rather than conceptual replications (i.e. usage of a different experimental method to test the same hypothesis). 48.2 percent of the replications were performed by the same research team as produced the original study, and when the same research team published the replication studies in the same journals, 88.7 percent of replications were successful while only 70.6 percent were successful when published in a different journal. When different researchers attempted to replicate the findings, only 54 percent of replications were successful. [14] [15]
As of December 2021 [update] , among more than 300 other psychology and medical journals, the British Journal of Developmental Psychology , the British Journal of Educational Psychology , the Canadian Journal of School Psychology , Exceptional Children , Frontiers in Education , the Gifted Child Quarterly , the Journal for the Education of the Gifted , the Journal of Advanced Academics , the Journal of Cognition and Development , the Journal of Educational Psychology , the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , JMIR Medical Education , the Journal of Numerical Cognition, the Journal of Research in Reading , Language Learning , Learning and Instruction, Mind, Brain, and Education , and Scientific Studies of Reading have adopted result-blind peer review (i.e. where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done) as part of an initiative organized by the Center for Open Science in response to concerns about publication bias and p-hacking. [16] [17] Early analysis of such reforms in psychology journals has estimated that 61 percent of result-blind studies have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 percent in earlier psychological research. [18]
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.
Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combination of multiple academic disciplines into one activity. It draws knowledge from several fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, etc. It is related to an interdiscipline or an interdisciplinary field, which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions emerge. Large engineering teams are usually interdisciplinary, as a power station or mobile phone or other project requires the melding of several specialties. However, the term "interdisciplinary" is sometimes confined to academic settings.
Musicology is the scholarly study of music. Musicology research combines and intersects with many fields, including psychology, sociology, acoustics, neurology, natural sciences, formal sciences and computer science.
Psychology is the study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both conscious and unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motives. Psychology is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Biological psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups.
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.
Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 18th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, human geography, linguistics, management science, communication science, psychology and political science.
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exist natural experimental studies.
In contemporary education, mathematics education—known in Europe as the didactics or pedagogy of mathematics—is the practice of teaching, learning, and carrying out scholarly research into the transfer of mathematical knowledge.
Participant observation is one type of data collection method by practitioner-scholars typically used in qualitative research and ethnography. This type of methodology is employed in many disciplines, particularly anthropology, sociology, communication studies, human geography, and social psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time.
Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This type of research typically involves in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observations in order to collect data that is rich in detail and context. Qualitative research is often used to explore complex phenomena or to gain insight into people's experiences and perspectives on a particular topic. It is particularly useful when researchers want to understand the meaning that people attach to their experiences or when they want to uncover the underlying reasons for people's behavior. Qualitative methods include ethnography, grounded theory, discourse analysis, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative research methods have been used in sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology, communication studies, social work, folklore, educational research, information science and software engineering research.
Social research is research conducted by social scientists following a systematic plan. Social research methodologies can be classified as quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative research is a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of data. It is formed from a deductive approach where emphasis is placed on the testing of theory, shaped by empiricist and positivist philosophies.
In its most common sense, methodology is the study of research methods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to the philosophical discussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bringing about a certain goal, like acquiring knowledge or verifying knowledge claims. This normally involves various steps, like choosing a sample, collecting data from this sample, and interpreting the data. The study of methods concerns a detailed description and analysis of these processes. It includes evaluative aspects by comparing different methods. This way, it is assessed what advantages and disadvantages they have and for what research goals they may be used. These descriptions and evaluations depend on philosophical background assumptions. Examples are how to conceptualize the studied phenomena and what constitutes evidence for or against them. When understood in the widest sense, methodology also includes the discussion of these more abstract issues.
Learning sciences (LS) is an interdisciplinary field that works to further sociocultural and in some cases critical theoretical understanding of learning as well as to engage in the design and implementation of learning innovations, and the improvement of instructional methodologies. LS research traditionally focuses on cognitive-psychological, social-psychological, cultural-psychological and critical theoretical foundations of human learning, as well as practical design of learning environments. Major contributing fields include cognitive science, computer science, educational psychology, anthropology, and applied linguistics. Over the past decade, researchers have expanded their focus to include the design of curricula, informal learning environments, instructional methods, and policy innovations.
Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists. The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data. Grounded theory involves the application of inductive reasoning. The methodology contrasts with the hypothetico-deductive model used in traditional scientific research.
Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, thought, cognitive and motor processes, and on the establishment of law-like rules that relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable behavior. The mathematical approach is used with the goal of deriving hypotheses that are more exact and thus yield stricter empirical validations. There are five major research areas in mathematical psychology: learning and memory, perception and psychophysics, choice and decision-making, language and thinking, and measurement and scaling.
Narrative inquiry or narrative analysis emerged as a discipline from within the broader field of qualitative research in the early 20th century, as evidence exists that this method was used in psychology and sociology. Narrative inquiry uses field texts, such as stories, autobiography, journals, field notes, letters, conversations, interviews, family stories, photos, and life experience, as the units of analysis to research and understand the way people create meaning in their lives as narratives.
Quantitative psychology is a field of scientific study that focuses on the mathematical modeling, research design and methodology, and statistical analysis of psychological processes. It includes tests and other devices for measuring cognitive abilities. Quantitative psychologists develop and analyze a wide variety of research methods, including those of psychometrics, a field concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement.
Chemistry education is the study of teaching and learning chemistry. It is one subset of STEM education or discipline-based education research (DBER). Topics in chemistry education include understanding how students learn chemistry and determining the most efficient methods to teach chemistry. There is a constant need to improve chemistry curricula and learning outcomes based on findings of chemistry education research (CER). Chemistry education can be improved by changing teaching methods and providing appropriate training to chemistry instructors, within many modes, including classroom lectures, demonstrations, and laboratory activities.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to social science:
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