Public budgeting is a field of public administration and a discipline in the academic study of public administration. Budgeting is characterized by its approaches, functions, formation, and type.
Authors Robert W. Smith and Thomas D. Lynch describe public budgeting through four perspectives: incrementalism, comprehensive planning, decision-making, and managerial. The politician sees the budget process as "a political event conducted in the political arena for political advantage".[1] The economist views budgeting as a matter of allocating resources in terms of opportunity cost where allocating resources to one consumer takes resources away from another consumer.[1] The role of the economist, therefore, is to provide decision makers with the best possible information. The accountant's perspective focuses on the accountability value in budgeting which analyzes the amount budgeted to the actual expenditures thereby describing the "wisdom of the original policy".[1] Smith and Lynch's public manager's perspective on a budget is a policy tool to describe the implementation of public policy. Further, they develop an operational definition:
A "budget" is a plan for the accomplishment of programs related to objectives and goals within a definite time period, including an estimate of resources required, together with an estimate of resources available, usually compared with one or more past periods and showing future requirements.[1]
Public budgeting refers to the process of allocating and managing public funds, typically by a government or other public organization. It involves setting priorities, estimating revenue, determining spending levels, and monitoring the use of funds.
Differences between public and private budgeting
Resource Management:
Resource management is an important aspect of public budgeting, as it involves the allocation, utilization, and monitoring of financial, human, and other resources. Some key considerations in resource management of public budgeting include: prioritisation, efficiency, accountability, transparency, flexibility.[2] Public budgets are of a greater size, however, the responsibility for them is assigned to relatively small number of executive representatives. Authors Robert D. Lee. Jr. et al. argue that governments do not use all available resources, even though this has been violated in the United States during times of major crises such as World War II. On the other hand, they suggests that during times unaffected by the crisis most of the Gross domestic product is managed by the private sector. Governments have almost unlimited power to decide how much money will be used for public purposes, whereas private sector is reliable on their ability to sell their product on the market.[3]
Profit Motive:
Private sector motivation is driven by maximisation of profit. It is a form of evaluating success of the private subject. The success of government cannot be measured in terms of profit because most of the activities managed by the government are unprofitable. Although, there are some government activities that yield profit which cannot be always measured in terms of money, even though we realize there is an existing benefit to such programs. Authors Robert D. Lee. Jr. et al. provide an example of cancer research. It obviously yields great returns which cannot be directly measured in terms of money, although future earnings can be estimated according to the value of life. That is why more abstract terms of measuring results of governmental activities are preferable.[4]
Role of public budgeting
Public budgeting aims to allocate and manage government resources in a manner that maximizes their effectiveness and efficiency to attain public objectives and advance the welfare of the community. Furthermore, it also fosters accountability, transparency, and public participation in the budget process to ensure that government decisions align with public priorities and expectations.[2]
"Some government services yield public or collective benefits that are of value to society as a whole"[5]
They suggest that this is the main difference from corporate products that are mostly consumed by an individual. Public goods have two main properties that indicate them.
Nonexcludability: no one can be prevented from using them (for an example public lighting)
Nonrivalness: consumption of the public good from one person does not affect other person's use (everyone consumes national defence in the same way and one person's consumption of national defence does not diminish its availability to others).[5]
Public goods are also referred to as goods that cannot be provided by the market efficiently or will not be provided by the market at all.[6][7] This idea was originally presented by economist Paul Samuelson in his seminal paper, "The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure," published in 1954.
It is an effect that affects people beyond those who are targets of a particular service. Externalities can be either positive or negative, depending on whether the effect is beneficial or harmful. Managing different externalities is also a domain where governments interfere.
positive externalities - occur when the consumption or production of a good or service has a beneficial effect on others, without compensation. One of the most typical examples is education. Governments provide access to some level of education regardless of their wealth. Although this service is provided to a particular person the overall effect benefits the whole society.[8] Other examples are healthcare, and research and development.
negative externalities - occur when the consumption or production of a good or service imposes costs on others, without compensation. Examples of negative externalities include pollution, noise, and traffic congestion. Some companies may pollute the environment, while they are maximizing their profit. It is the role of the government to prevent or minimize the cost arising from such actions.[9]
Other responsibilities
Demographic changes - governments influence demographic factors through public programs by implementing policies and programs aimed at changing the population size, age structure, and geographic distribution of a country's population. For example, governments may provide incentives for families to have more children in order to increase the birth rate and promote population growth, or they may provide healthcare and education programs to improve the health and education levels of the population, which can lead to demographic changes over time.
High-risk situations - governments are able to bear or regulate risks connected to activities that would not be manageable for the private sector due to their ability to raise funds through taxation or borrowing (such as space exploration).
Technological change - governments can help facilitate technological change by providing infrastructure for new means of transport, such as highways or public transportation systems. They may also provide funding for research and development of new technologies, such as renewable energy or artificial intelligence, which can help to drive innovation and economic growth. Additionally, governments also regulate industries to prevent monopolies and other market instabilities.[10]
Governments use public budgeting to allocate and manage financial resources in order to achieve social and economic objectives.[2] Governments are to redistribute money in a socially beneficial way. In order to do so they need to raise the money from people in the most efficient and equitable manner or incorporate some profitable activities. However, most of the revenues are accumulated from taxes and social insurances. Finding the balance between income and expenditures is the goal in public budgeting but the specific income sources and services provided are equally important topic in the discussion about public budgeting.[11]
The main sources of federal income in the United States are individual income tax, social insurance taxes (payroll tax for Social Security and Medicare), and the corporate income tax.[11] These revenue streams are used to fund a wide range of public services, including national defence, social welfare programs, and public infrastructure.
The aim of the government is to minimize the dead weight loss of taxation and tax evasion. To address these issues, governments can implement measures such as simplifying the tax code, reducing tax rates, and increasing tax enforcement efforts. However, some tax costs cannot be avoided completely.[12]
Public budget expenditures
Basically, there are three main types of spendings:
Discretionary spendings - spendings that undergo an approval process which aims to modify the properties of those expenditures and can be modified every year, these can be operations of federal departments or investments in infrastructure, etc. Discretionary spendings are consisting from the half out of national defence expenses in the USA.
Mandatory spending - government is obligated to pay them according to law and they cannot be changed.
Mandatory spendings became higher overtime and are the greater part of public expenditures. Most of them are closely connected to healthcare.
Net interest - refers to the amount of money the government has to pay each year on interests on the national debt.[13]
There has been a huge shift towards mandatory spendings as countries around the world adopted various fiscal rules to enforce sustainability and to make public budgets more predictable over time . On the other hand, this implies that governments have much less space to control the public budget. Fiscal rules can have positive or negative outcomes according to the responsibility of the government. For governments that consume rising shares of national income, these rules may prevent enormous debt of the country during their governance.[14]
Balanced budget norm - governments focused on balanced budget, each year they targeted the revenue expenditure balance but did not differentiate between recession and years of economic growth, because most of the countries could not follow this norm (during times of war and economic stagnation these rules have been constantly violated), even though it served as a rigid argument for cutting expenses.
Dynamic fiscal management - after the World War II. these rules shifted towards targeting balanced budget in the time horizon of one economic cycle, in some countries this meant that spendings should not exceed the government revenue that would be accumulated at full employment, the aim was to have an approximately same real output as the potential output.
Fiscal targets - with the demand for balancing the economy rather than balancing the budget. Governments used debt with the aim to stimulate the economy, but after the oil shocks the governments could not balance out the budget by raising taxes and had to adapt much stronger cuts on expenditures. As balanced budgets are not possible during economic fluctuations, governments are now focusing on long-term prospects perceiving debts as a drag on the future economic growth.[14]
Leading definitions
Practical: "A plan for financing an enterprise or government during a definite period, which is prepared and submitted by a responsible executive to a representative body (or other duly constituted agent) whose approval and authorization are necessary before the plan may be executed." ~Frederick A. Cleveland[15]
Theoretical: The leading question: "On what basis shall it be decided to allocate x dollars to activity A instead of activity B?" ~V. O. Key Jr.[16]
Leading theorists and contributions
Frederick Cleveland: constructed a practical definition of budgeting.[15]
V. O. Key, Jr.: sparked the normative question regarding how scarce resources ought to be distributed to unlimited demands.[16]
Verne B. Lewis: argued for a budgeting theory based on economic values; strongly contributing to the study of public finance.[18]
Richard A. Musgrave: the Father of Public Finance; identified the three roles of government in the economy: allocation of resources, distribution of goods and services, and economy stabilization.[19]
Aaron Wildavsky: His work emphasized the political nature of budgeting, and he is known for developing the concept of "budgetary incrementalism," which describes the tendency of governments to make small, incremental changes to their budgets over time. He suggested that budgetary decision making is largely political, rather than based on economic conditions.[20]
Allen Schick: He is known for his work on budgetary reforms and his contributions to the field of performance-based budgeting. He outlined the three functions of budgeting:
Strategic Planning; deciding on the goals and objectives of an organization.
Management Control; management's process of assuring effective and efficient accomplishment of goals and objectives laid out via strategic planning.
Operational Control; focused on proper execution of specific tasks that provide the most efficient and effective means of meeting the goals and objectives ordered by management control.[21]
Irene S. Rubin: His work focuses on the role of budgeting in policy-making and the challenges of managing public finances in an era of fiscal austerity. He facilitated the discussion of the dichotomy between theory and practice of public budgeting.[22][23]
Robert D. Behn: His work has emphasized the importance of setting clear goals and measuring performance in order to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public budgeting.[24]
Eugene Bardach: He is known for his work on the use of "policy tools" in the budgeting process, and his emphasis on the importance of evidence-based decision-making.[25]
Approaches to budgeting
Examples of budgeting approaches include:
Line Item Budgeting is arguably the simplest form of budgeting, this approach links the inputs of the system to the system. These budgets typically appear in the form of accounting documents that express minimal information regarding purpose or an explicit object within the system. The focus is on controlling spending rather than maximising efficiency.
Program Budgeting takes a normative approach to budgeting in that decision making—allocating resources—is determined by the funding of one program instead of another based on what that program offers. The goal is to allocate resources based on the relative importance of each program to the overall mission of the organization. This approach quickly lends itself to the PPBS budgeting approach.
PPBS Budgeting, or Program Planning Budgeting System, is the link between the line-item and program budgets and the more complex performance budget. As opposed to the more simple program budget, this decision making tool links the program under consideration to the ways and means of facilitating the program. This is meant to serve as a long-term planning tool so that decision makers are made aware of the future implications of their actions. These are typically most useful in capital projects. The planning portion of the approach seeks to link goals to objects or expected outcomes from specific outputs, which are then sorted into programs that convert inputs to outputs; finally, the budgeting of PPBS helps determine how to fund the program. A leader in the promotion of PPBS was Robert McNamara's use in the United States Government's Department of Defense in the 1960s.
Performance Based Budgeting attempts to solve decision making problems based on a programs ability to convert inputs to outputs and/or use inputs to affect certain outcomes. Whatever performance may be judged by a certain program's ability to meet certain objectives that contribute to a more abstract goal as calculated by that program's ability to use resources (or inputs) efficiently—by linking inputs to outputs—and/or effectively—by linking inputs to outcomes. A decision making—or allocation of scarce resources—problem is solved by determining which project maximizes efficiency and efficacy. The goal is to maximize the overall impact of the organization's resources.
Zero-based budgeting (ZBB) is a response to an incremental decision making process whereby the budget of a given fiscal year (FY) is largely decided upon by the existing budget of FY-1. In contrast to incrementalism, the allocation of scarce resources—funding—is determined from a zero-sum accounting method. In government, each function of a department's section proposes certain objectives that relate to some goal the section could achieve if allocated x dollars.
Flexible Freeze is a budgeting approach that combines elements of incrementalism and ZBB and that pioneered by President George H. W. Bush as a means to cut government spending. Under this approach, certain programs would be affected by changes in population growth and inflation. This approach can help organizations maintain fiscal discipline while also allowing for some flexibility in response to changing circumstances.
Program Assessment Rating Tool (P.A.R.T.) is an instrument developed by the United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to measure and assess the effectiveness of federal programs that review the program’s purpose and design, strategic planning, program management, and program results and accountability. The scores are rated from effective (ranging between 85 and 100 points), moderately affective (70-84 points), adequate (50-69 points), and ineffective (0-49 points).
Priority Based Budgeting is a response to poor economic conditions. As opposed to incremental budgeting, where resource allocation is determined based on marginal shifts in costs, priority based budgeting fixes the amount of governmental resources and then allocates resources across the various programs. The programs receive their allocation based on their priority; priorities may include safe and secure communities, health, education, and community development among others. Outcome assessment then determines the efficacy of the programs. Although this approach is pro-democratic, critics suggest the administration of this process is extremely difficult.
Functions of a budget document
A government's budget is a comprehensive financial plan that outlines its priorities and objectives for a given period. As a policy document, a government's budget is designed as a plan for implementing its policy. Traditionally, budgets served as a more rigid tool to implement policy in a retrospective setting. The functions associated with these values are listed under the Traditional Model and are control, management, and planning. The Modern Model, taking a less rigid approach, has replaced the control function with the monitoring function, the management function with the steering function, and the planning function with the strategic brokering function.
Monitoring: focuses on the assessing the outcomes and consequences of expenditures.
Steering: as a response to the traditional management function, the steering function serves as a guide for managing. Strategic Brokering uses the budget document as a means of constantly looking for possible directions and reacting to the environment. It can help the government stay attuned to changes in the environment and adjust its policies and spending accordingly.
Values in budgeting
Three values are generally discussed in the literature of public budgeting: accountability, efficiency, and efficacy.
Accountability focuses on the inputs going into the system or program in action and is best characterized by the line-item budgeting approach. It is best suited for the control and monitoring functions of a budget.
Efficiency focuses on the process of the system or program and its conversion of inputs (resources) into outputs (policy). Its focus on the process makes this value appropriate for performance budgets and most in-line with management and steering functions.
Efficacy focuses on outputs and outcomes, measuring the impact of policy. This value follows both the program budget and PPBS budget approaches and coincides with the planning and strategic brokering functions.
Typically, the budget cycles occurs in four phases.[1] The first phase requires policy planning and resource analysis and includes revenue estimation. This is usually performed by individuals or teams within the executive branch, such as the finance director, manager, etc. The second phase is referred to as policy formulation and includes the negotiation and planning of the budget formation. This is where the budget call is issued to outline the presentation form and recommend certain goals. During this phase, the organization reflects on the past and sets goals for the future, while reconciling the difference. The third phase is policy execution, which follows budget adoption is budget execution—the implementation and revision of budgeted policy. In this phase, the organization amends the budget as the fiscal year progresses. The fourth phase encompasses the entire budget process. This phase is auditing and evaluating the entire process and system to ensure that it is operating effectively. See the associated points below:
Revenue Estimation: This step involves estimating the amount of revenue that the organization expects to generate in the upcoming period. This can be based on a variety of factors, such as economic trends, past performance, and industry data. The revenue estimation is typically performed by the finance director, clerk's office, budget director, manager, or a team.
Budget Call: The budget call is an announcement issued by the governing body that outlines the presentation form of the budget and recommends certain goals to be achieved. Typically, the budget call sets a deadline for departments to submit their budget requests.
Budget Formulation: In this step, the finance department reviews past performance, sets goals for the future, and reconciles any differences between revenue projections and expected expenses. The department then creates a draft budget, which is reviewed and revised as needed.
Budget Hearings: These are meetings where the governing body, departments, sections, the executive, and the public can discuss changes in the budget. These meetings are an opportunity for stakeholders to provide feedback and offer suggestions for improvements.
Budget Adoption: final approval by the legislative body. Once the budget is adopted, it becomes the official plan for the upcoming fiscal year.
Budget Execution: The budget execution phase involves monitoring the budget throughout the fiscal year and making any necessary adjustments. This can include amending the budget to reflect changes in revenue or unexpected expenses. The finance department must ensure that the budget is being followed and that any deviations are addressed promptly.
Types of public budgets
There are several types of public budgets that governments may use to allocate resources and plan for future spending. The most common types are:
Operating budgets are those documents that describe the expenditures and revenues during a given period for the functioning of an organization. It also includes appropriations for salaries, utilities and other expenses.
Capital budgeting is the process of planning for future purchases above a certain cost threshold or extended life span. This budget is typically accompanied by a capital improvement plan that describes a timeline for acquisition and payment of debt. Thus, a capital budget is used to fund large, long-term investments in infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings.
Program budget is a budget that is structured around specific programs or services, such as education or public safety. It allows for more detailed tracking of spending and performance metrics for each program, enabling governments to make data-driven decisions about resource allocation.
Performance budget is a budget that is based on achieving specific outcomes or objectives, rather than simply allocating resources. It emphasizes measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of government programs and services, and allocating resources to achieve the greatest impact.
Zero-based budget is a budgeting approach that requires justifying every dollar spent, rather than basing the budget on the previous year's spending. This approach forces government entities to critically evaluate every expense and prioritize resources based on the highest impact and greatest need.
In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection and expenditure to influence a country's economy. The use of government revenue expenditures to influence macroeconomic variables developed in reaction to the Great Depression of the 1930s, when the previous laissez-faire approach to economic management became unworkable. Fiscal policy is based on the theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes, whose Keynesian economics theorised that government changes in the levels of taxation and government spending influence aggregate demand and the level of economic activity. Fiscal and monetary policy are the key strategies used by a country's government and central bank to advance its economic objectives. The combination of these policies enables these authorities to target inflation and to increase employment. In modern economies, inflation is conventionally considered "healthy" in the range of 2%–3%. Additionally, it is designed to try to keep GDP growth at 2%–3% and the unemployment rate near the natural unemployment rate of 4%–5%. This implies that fiscal policy is used to stabilise the economy over the course of the business cycle.
Public finance is the study of the role of the government in the economy. It is the branch of economics that assesses the government revenue and government expenditure of the public authorities and the adjustment of one or the other to achieve desirable effects and avoid undesirable ones. The purview of public finance is considered to be threefold, consisting of governmental effects on:
The efficient allocation of available resources;
The distribution of income among citizens; and
The stability of the economy.
The government budget balance, also referred to as the general government balance, public budget balance, or public fiscal balance, is the difference between government revenues and spending. For a government that uses accrual accounting the budget balance is calculated using only spending on current operations, with expenditure on new capital assets excluded. A positive balance is called a government budget surplus, and a negative balance is a government budget deficit. A government budget presents the government's proposed revenues and spending for a financial year.
A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial, for a defined period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including time, costs and expenses, environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, other impacts, assets, liabilities and cash flows. Companies, governments, families, and other organizations use budgets to express strategic plans of activities in measurable terms.
Government spending or expenditure includes all government consumption, investment, and transfer payments. In national income accounting, the acquisition by governments of goods and services for current use, to directly satisfy the individual or collective needs of the community, is classed as government final consumption expenditure. Government acquisition of goods and services intended to create future benefits, such as infrastructure investment or research spending, is classed as government investment. These two types of government spending, on final consumption and on gross capital formation, together constitute one of the major components of gross domestic product.
A Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO) is a federally mandated and federally funded transportation policy-making organization in the United States that is made up of representatives from local government and governmental transportation authorities. They were created to ensure regional cooperation in transportation planning. MPOs were introduced by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1962, which required the formation of an MPO for any urbanized area (UZA) with a population greater than 50,000. Federal funding for transportation projects and programs are channeled through this planning process. Congress created MPOs in order to ensure that existing and future expenditures of governmental funds for transportation projects and programs are based on a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive ("3-C") planning process. Statewide and metropolitan transportation planning processes are governed by federal law. Transparency through public access to participation in the planning process and electronic publication of plans now is required by federal law. As of 2015, there are 408 MPOs in the United States.
Fiscal policy is any changes the government makes to the national budget to influence a nation's economy. "An essential purpose of this Financial Report is to help American citizens understand the current fiscal policy and the importance and magnitude of policy reforms essential to make it sustainable. A sustainable fiscal policy is explained as the debt held by the public to Gross Domestic Product which is either stable or declining over the long term". The approach to economic policy in the United States was rather laissez-faire until the Great Depression. The government tried to stay away from economic matters as much as possible and hoped that a balanced budget would be maintained. Prior to the Great Depression, the economy did have economic downturns and some were quite severe. However, the economy tended to self-correct so the laissez faire approach to the economy tended to work.
The United States budget comprises the spending and revenues of the U.S. federal government. The budget is the financial representation of the priorities of the government, reflecting historical debates and competing economic philosophies. The government primarily spends on healthcare, retirement, and defense programs. The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office provides extensive analysis of the budget and its economic effects. CBO estimated in February 2024 that Federal debt held by the public is projected to rise from 99 percent of GDP in 2024 to 116 percent in 2034 and would continue to grow if current laws generally remained unchanged. Over that period, the growth of interest costs and mandatory spending outpaces the growth of revenues and the economy, driving up debt. Those factors persist beyond 2034, pushing federal debt higher still, to 172 percent of GDP in 2054.
A government budget is a projection of the government's revenues and expenditure for a particular period of time often referred to as a financial or fiscal year, which may or may not correspond with the calendar year. Government revenues mostly include taxes while expenditures consist of government spending. A government budget is prepared by the Central government or other political entity. In most parliamentary systems, the budget is presented to the legislature and often requires approval of the legislature. Through this budget, the government implements economic policy and realizes its program priorities. Once the budget is approved, the use of funds from individual chapters is in the hands of government ministries and other institutions. Revenues of the state budget consist mainly of taxes, customs duties, fees and other revenues. State budget expenditures cover the activities of the state, which are either given by law or the constitution. The budget in itself does not appropriate funds for government programs, hence need for additional legislative measures. The word budget comes from the Old French bougette.
Zero-based budgeting (ZBB) is a budgeting method that requires all expenses to be justified and approved in each new budget period, typically each year. It was developed by Peter Pyhrr in the 1970s. This budgeting method analyzes an organization's needs and costs by starting from a "zero base" at the beginning of every period. The intended outcome is to access the efficient use of resources by determining if services can be provided at a lower cost. However, the saving comes at the expense of a complete restructuring every budget cycle. Although used at least partially in both government and the private sector, there is some doubt whether ZBB has ever been utilized to its fullest extent in any organization.
The Indian government has, since war, subsidised many industries and products, from fuel to gas.
The Ministry of Finance is a government ministry of Tanzania.
In economics, a federal budget is the major plan for a federal government's estimated future revenues and spending for the coming fiscal year. The federal budget is representation of the financial plan for the goals and activities of the government which in turn reflects the debates surrounding the various economical principles and ideas. It is the main means of the redistribution of the national income and gross domestic product to meet the needs necessary in order for economic growth. Primarily, the government spends a significant amount of their financial resources in the areas of healthcare, the old and young and social security programs.
The Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR) is a non-departmental public body funded by the UK Treasury, that the UK government established to provide independent economic forecasts and independent analysis of the public finances. It was formally created in May 2010 following the general election and was placed on a statutory footing by the Budget Responsibility and National Audit Act 2011. It is one of a growing number of official independent fiscal watchdogs around the world.
The Budget of the State of Oklahoma is the governor's proposal to the Oklahoma Legislature which recommends funding levels to operate the state government for the next fiscal year, beginning July 1. Legislative decisions are governed by rules and legislation regarding the state budget process.
The Swiss federal budget refers to the annual revenue and expenditures of the Swiss Confederation. As budget expenditures are issued on a yearly basis by the government, the federal council, and have to be approved by the parliament, they reflect the country's Fiscal policy.
Public administration in Israel at the federal level is performed by 28 primary ministries. Ministries provide a range of services, including traditional public goods such as national defense, as well as functions unique to Israel, such as maintaining relations with the Jewish Diaspora. Historically, public expenditures have been concentrated in the defense, education, employment and healthcare sectors. Local governments share responsibility for secondary schools, local healthcare, waste management, road maintenance, parks and local emergency services.
Gender budgeting means preparing budgets or analyzing them from a gender perspective. Also referred to as gender-sensitive budgeting, this practice does not entail dividing budgets for women. It aims at dealing with budgetary gender inequality issues, including gender hierarchies and the discrepancies between women's and men's salaries. At its core, gender budgeting is a feminist policy with a primary goal of re-orienting the allocation of public resources, advocating for an advanced decision-making role for women in important issues, and securing equity in the distribution of resources between men and women. Gender budgeting allows governments to promote equality through fiscal policies by taking analyses of a budget's differing impacts on the sexes as well as setting goals or targets for equality and allocating funds to support those goals. This practice does not always target intentional discrimination but rather forces an awareness of the effects of financial schemes on all genders.
In Malaysia, federal budgets are presented annually by the Government of Malaysia to identify proposed government revenues and spending and forecast economic conditions for the upcoming year, and its fiscal policy for the forward years. The federal budget includes the government's estimates of revenue and spending and may outline new policy initiatives. Federal budgets are usually released in October, before the start of the fiscal year. All of the Malaysian states also present budgets. Since state finances are dependent on money from the federal government, these budgets are usually released after the federal one.
Government spending in the United States is the spending of the federal government of the United States and the spending of its state and local governments.
References
1 2 3 4 5 Smith, Robert W.; Lynch, Thomas Dexter (2004). Public Budgeting in America. Pearson/Prentice Hall. p.37. ISBN978-0-13-097993-3.
1 2 3 Willoughby, Katherine G. (September 2014). Public Budgeting in Context: Structure, Law, Reform and Results. Jossey-Bass. ISBN978-1-118-50932-6.
1 2 Cleveland, Frederick A. (November 1915). "Evolution of the Budget Idea in the United States". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 62 (1): 15–35. doi:10.1177/000271621506200103. S2CID145477728.
↑ Wildavsky, Aaron (1961). "Political Implications of Budgetary Reform". Public Administration Review. 21 (4): 183–190. doi:10.2307/973628. JSTOR973628.
↑ Schick, Allen (1966). "The Road to PPB: The Stages of Budget Reform". Public Administration Review. 26 (4): 243–258. doi:10.2307/973296. JSTOR973296.
↑ Rubin, Irene S. (1990). "Budget Theory and Budget Practice: How Good the Fit?". Public Administration Review. 50 (2): 179–189. doi:10.2307/976865. JSTOR976865. OCLC5544438699.
↑ Rubin, Irene S. (2019). The Politics of Public Budgeting: Getting and Spending, Borrowing and Balancing. CQ Press. ISBN978-1-5443-5783-6.[pageneeded]
↑ Behn, Robert D. (2014). The PerformanceStat Potential: A Leadership Strategy for Producing Results. Brookings / Ash Institute Series, "Innovative Governance in the 21st Century".
↑ Bardach, Eugene S. (2019). A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving. CQ Press. ISBN978-1506368894.
↑ Lee, Robert D.; Johnson, Ronald; Joyce, Philip (2008). Public Budgeting Systems (8thed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Sources
Lee, Robert D.; Johnson, Ronald Wayne; Joyce, Philip G. (2013). Public Budgeting Systems. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN978-1-4496-2790-4.
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