Democratic transition

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Since 1900, the number of countries democratizing (yellow) has been higher than those autocratizing (blue), except in the late 1920s through 1940s and since 2010. Number of countries experiencing autocratization and democratization, 1900-2000.jpg
Since 1900, the number of countries democratizing (yellow) has been higher than those autocratizing (blue), except in the late 1920s through 1940s and since 2010.

A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system as a result of an ongoing change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one. [1] [2] [3] The process is known as democratisation, political changes moving in a democratic direction. [4] Democratization waves have been linked to sudden shifts in the distribution of power among the great powers, which created openings and incentives to introduce sweeping domestic reforms. [5] [6] Although transitional regimes experience more civil unrest, [7] [8] they may be considered stable in a transitional phase for decades at a time. [9] [10] [11] Since the end of the Cold War transitional regimes have become the most common form of government. [12] [13] Scholarly analysis of the decorative nature of democratic institutions concludes that the opposite democratic backsliding (autocratization), a transition to authoritarianism is the most prevalent basis of modern hybrid regimes. [14] [15] [16]

Contents

Typology

Autocratization

Countries autocratizing (red) or democratizing (blue) substantially and significantly (2010-2020), according to V-Dem Institute. Countries in grey are substantially unchanged. Countries democratizing or autocratizing substantially and significantly 2010-2020.svg
Countries autocratizing (red) or democratizing (blue) substantially and significantly (2010–2020), according to V-Dem Institute. Countries in grey are substantially unchanged.
Democratic backsliding [a] is a form of autocratization, a process of regime change toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. [24] [25] [26] Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. [27] [28] Democratic decline involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. [29] [30] Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.

Democratisation

Map showing democratization of countries after the Cold War Global effect of 1989-1991 Revolutions.png
Map showing democratization of countries after the Cold War
Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. [31] [32]

Factors

Decolonization

Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. [33] The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires. [34] [35]
Except for a few absolute monarchies, most post-colonial states are either republics or constitutional monarchies. These new states had to devise constitutions, electoral systems, and other institutions of representative democracy.

Democratic globalization

Democratic globalization is a social movement towards an institutional system of global democracy. [36] One of its proponents is the British political thinker David Held. In the last decade, Held published a dozen books regarding the spread of democracy from territorially defined nation states to a system of global governance that encompasses the entire world. For some, democratic mundialisation (from the French term mondialisation) is a variant of democratic globalisation that emphasizes the need for citizens worldwide to directly elect world leaders and members of global institutions; for others, it is just democratic globalization by another name. [37]

Democracy promotion

Democracy promotion, also referred to as democracy building, can be domestic policy to increase the quality of already existing democracy or a strand of foreign policy adopted by governments and international organizations that seek to support the spread of democracy as a system of government. In practice, it entails consolidating and building democratic institutions.

Outcomes

Democratic consolidation

Democratic consolidation is the process by which a new democracy matures, in a way that it becomes unlikely to revert to authoritarianism without an external shock, and is regarded as the only available system of government within a country. [38] [39] A country can be described as consolidated when the current democratic system becomes “the only game in town”, [40] meaning no one in the country is trying to act outside of the set institutions. [41] This is the case when no significant political group seriously attempts to overthrow the democratic regime, the democratic system is regarded as the most appropriate way to govern by the vast majority of the public, and all political actors are accustomed to the fact that conflicts are resolved through established political and constitutional rules. [42] [43]

Stalled transition

Hybrid regime

A hybrid regime [b] is a type of political system often created as a result of an incomplete democratic transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). [c] Hybrid regimes are categorized as having a combination of autocratic features with democratic ones and can simultaneously hold political repressions and regular elections. [c] According to some definitions and measures, hybrid regimes are commonly found in developing countries with abundant natural resources such as petro-states. [53] [51] [54] Although these regimes experience civil unrest, they may be relatively stable and tenacious for decades at a time. [c] There has been a rise in hybrid regimes since the end of the Cold War. [55] [56]

Measurement

Global trend report Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2022 BTI 2022 DEM.jpg
Global trend report Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2022
The democracy indices differ in whether they are categorical, such as classifying countries into democracies, hybrid regimes, and autocracies, [58] [59] or continuous values. [60] The qualitative nature of democracy indices enables data analytical approaches for studying causal mechanisms of regime transformation processes.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Other names include autocratization, democratic decline, [18] de-democratization, [19] democratic erosion, [20] democratic decay, [21] democratic recession, [22] democratic regression, [18] and democratic deconsolidation. [23]
  2. ↑ Scholars use a variety of terms to encompass the "grey zones" between full autocracies and full democracies. [44] Such terms include: competitive authoritarianism, semi-authoritarianism, hybrid authoritarianism, electoral authoritarianism, liberal autocracy, delegative democracy, illiberal democracy, guided democracy, semi-democracy, deficient democracy, defective democracy, and hybrid democracy. [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52]
  3. 1 2 3 Debates over what can be called "hybrid" still exist, see #Definition section for details.

References

  1. ↑ Arugay, Aries A. (2021). "Democratic Transitions". The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_190-1. ISBN   978-3-319-74336-3. S2CID   240235199.
  2. ↑ Munck, G.L. (2001). "Democratic Transitions". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 3425–3428. doi:10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01135-9. ISBN   9780080430768.
  3. ↑ Cassani, Andrea; Tomini, Luca (2019). "Authoritarian resurgence: towards a unified analytical framework". Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica. 49 (2). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 115–120. doi:10.1017/ipo.2019.14. hdl: 2434/666535 . ISSN   0048-8402. S2CID   199298876.
  4. ↑ Huntington, Samuel P. (2009). "How Countries Democratize" . Political Science Quarterly. 124 (1). [The Academy of Political Science, Wiley]: 31–69. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00641.x. ISSN   0032-3195. JSTOR   25655609 . Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  5. ↑ Gunitsky, Seva (2014). "From Shocks to Waves: Hegemonic Transitions and Democratization in the Twentieth Century" . International Organization. 68 (3): 561–597. doi:10.1017/S0020818314000113. ISSN   0020-8183. S2CID   232254486.
  6. ↑ Gunitsky, Seva (2017). Aftershocks. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-17233-0.
  7. ↑ Cook, Scott J; Savun, Burcu (2016). "New democracies and the risk of civil conflict". Journal of Peace Research. 53 (6). SAGE Publications: 745–757. doi:10.1177/0022343316660756. ISSN   0022-3433. S2CID   114918000.
  8. ↑ Crocker, C.A.; Hampson, F.O.; Aall, P. (2016). Managing Conflict in a World Adrift. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 156. ISBN   978-1-928096-48-1 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  9. ↑ Sönmez, Hakan (2020-09-30). "Democratic Backsliding or Stabilization?". Politikon: The IAPSS Journal of Political Science. 46. International Association for Political Science Students: 54–78. doi: 10.22151/politikon.46.3 . ISSN   2414-6633.
  10. ↑ Geddes, Barbara (1999). "What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years?". Annual Review of Political Science. 2 (1). Annual Reviews: 115–144. doi: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.115 . ISSN   1094-2939.
  11. ↑ Törnberg, Anton (2018). "Combining transition studies and social movement theory: towards a new research agenda". Theory and Society. 47 (3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 381–408. doi: 10.1007/s11186-018-9318-6 . ISSN   0304-2421. S2CID   255015393.
  12. ↑ Leonardo Morlino; Dirk Berg-Schlosser; Bertrand Badie (6 March 2017). Political Science: A Global Perspective. SAGE. pp. 112–. ISBN   978-1-5264-1303-1. OCLC   1124515503.
  13. ↑ Brownlee, Jason (2009). "Portents of Pluralism: How Hybrid Regimes Affect Democratic Transitions". American Journal of Political Science. 53 (3). [Midwest Political Science Association, Wiley]: 515–532. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00384.x . ISSN   0092-5853. JSTOR   25548135.
  14. ↑ "Home - IDEA Global State of Democracy Report". International IDEA. Retrieved Nov 26, 2022.
  15. ↑ Hameed, Dr. Muntasser Majeed (Jun 30, 2022). "Hybrid regimes: An Overview". IPRI Journal. 22 (1). Islamabad Policy Research Institute - IPRI: 1–24. doi: 10.31945/iprij.220101 . ISSN   1684-9787. S2CID   251173436.
  16. ↑ Caballero-Anthony, M. (2009). Political Change, Democratic Transitions and Security in Southeast Asia. Routledge Security in Asia Pacific Series. Taylor & Francis. p. 7. ISBN   978-1-135-26840-4 . Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  17. ↑ Nazifa Alizada, Rowan Cole, Lisa Gastaldi, Sandra Grahn, Sebastian Hellmeier, Palina Kolvani, Jean Lachapelle, Anna Lührmann, Seraphine F. Maerz, Shreeya Pillai, and Staffan I. Lindberg. 2021. Autocratization Turns Viral. Democracy Report 2021. University of Gothenburg: V-Dem Institute. https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/74/8c/748c68ad-f224-4cd7-87f9-8794add5c60f/dr_2021_updated.pdf Archived 14 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  18. 1 2 Mietzner, Marcus (2021). "Sources of resistance to democratic decline: Indonesian civil society and its trials". Democratization. 28 (1): 161–178. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1796649. S2CID   225475139.
  19. ↑ Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) Populism: a Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.86-96. ISBN   978-0-19-023487-4
  20. ↑ Laebens, Melis G.; Lührmann, Anna (2021). "What halts democratic erosion? The changing role of accountability". Democratization. 28 (5): 908–928. doi:10.1080/13510347.2021.1897109. S2CID   234870008.
  21. ↑ Daly, Tom Gerald (2019). "Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field". Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. 11: 9–36. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2. S2CID   159354232.
  22. ↑ Huq, Aziz Z (2021). "How (not) to explain a democratic recession". International Journal of Constitutional Law . 19 (2): 723–737. doi:10.1093/icon/moab058.
  23. ↑ Chull Shin, Doh (2021). "Democratic deconsolidation in East Asia: exploring system realignments in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan". Democratization. 28 (1): 142–160. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1826438. S2CID   228959708.
  24. ↑ Hyde, Susan D. (2020). "Democracy's backsliding in the international environment". Science . 369 (6508): 1192–1196. Bibcode:2020Sci...369.1192H. doi:10.1126/science.abb2434. PMID   32883862. S2CID   221472047.
  25. ↑ Skaaning, Svend-Erik (2020). "Waves of autocratization and democratization: a critical note on conceptualization and measurement" (PDF). Democratization. 27 (8): 1533–1542. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1799194. S2CID   225378571. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
  26. ↑ Lührmann, Anna; Lindberg, Staffan I. (2019). "A third wave of autocratization is here: what is new about it?". Democratization. 26 (7): 1095–1113. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2019.1582029 . S2CID   150992660. The decline of democratic regime attributes – autocratization
  27. ↑ Cassani, Andrea; Tomini, Luca (2019). "What Autocratization Is". Autocratization in post-Cold War Political Regimes. Springer International Publishing. pp. 15–35. ISBN   978-3-030-03125-1.
  28. ↑ Walder, D.; Lust, E. (2018). "Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding". Annual Review of Political Science. 21 (1): 93–113. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628 . Backsliding entails deterioration of qualities associated with democratic governance, within any regime. In democratic regimes, it is a decline in the quality of democracy; in autocracies, it is a decline in democratic qualities of governance.
  29. ↑ Lindberg, Staffan I. "The Nature of Democratic Backsliding in Europe". Carnegie Europe. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
  30. ↑ Rocha Menocal, Alina; Fritz, Verena; Rakner, Lise (June 2008). "Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1" . South African Journal of International Affairs. 15 (1): 29–40. doi:10.1080/10220460802217934. ISSN   1022-0461. S2CID   55589140. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020.
  31. ↑ Arugay, Aries A. (2021). "Democratic Transitions". The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_190-1. ISBN   978-3-319-74336-3. S2CID   240235199.
  32. ↑ Lindenfors, Patrik; Wilson, Matthew; Lindberg, Staffan I. (2020). "The Matthew effect in political science: head start and key reforms important for democratization". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications . 7 (106) 106. doi: 10.1057/s41599-020-00596-7 .
  33. ↑ Note however discussion of (for example) the Russian and Nazi empires below.
  34. ↑ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 255–257. ISBN   978-0028659657.
  35. ↑ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins (1995).
  36. ↑ Rosow, S.J.; George, J. (2014). Globalization and Democracy. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 2. ISBN   978-1-4422-1810-9 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  37. ↑ Fisher, Stephen (2016-01-01). "Democratic Support and Globalization". Globalization and Domestic Politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 209–234. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198757986.003.0011. ISBN   978-0-19-875798-6.
  38. ↑ Schedler, Andreas (1998). "What is Democratic Consolidation?". Journal of Democracy. 9 (2). Project Muse: 91–107. doi:10.1353/jod.1998.0030. ISSN   1086-3214.
  39. ↑ Encarnacion, Omar G.; Gunther, Richard; Diamandourous, P. Nikiforos; Puhle, Hans-Jurgen; Mainwaring, Scott; Scully, Timothy; Buchanan, Paul G.; Jelin, Elizabeth; Hershberg, Eric; Morlino, Leonardo (2000). "Beyond Transitions: The Politics of Democratic Consolidation". Comparative Politics. 32 (4). JSTOR: 479. doi:10.2307/422390. ISSN   0010-4159. JSTOR   422390.
  40. ↑ Linz, Juan J. (Juan Jose); Stepan, Alfred C. (1996). "Toward Consolidated Democracies". Journal of Democracy. 7 (2). Project Muse: 14–33. doi:10.1353/jod.1996.0031. ISSN   1086-3214.
  41. ↑ Przeworski, Adam (1992). Democracy and the market : political and economic reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   0-521-41225-0. OCLC   476230396.
  42. ↑ Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. C. (April 1996). "Toward consolidated democracies" . Journal of Democracy. 7 (2): 14–33. doi:10.1353/jod.1996.0031. S2CID   154644233 – via Project MUSE.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ↑ Cook, Scott J; Savun, Burcu (2016). "New democracies and the risk of civil conflict: The lasting legacy or military rule" . Journal of Peace Research. 53 (6). Sage Publications, Ltd.: 745–757. doi:10.1177/0022343316660756. eISSN   1460-3578. ISSN   0022-3433. JSTOR   44510457 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  44. ↑ Gagné, Jean-François (Mar 10, 2015), Hybrid Regimes, Oxford University Press (OUP), doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0167
  45. ↑ Plattner, Marc F. (1969-12-31). "Is Democracy in Decline?". kipdf.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
  46. ↑ "Hybrid Concepts and the Concept of Hybridity". European Consortium for Political Research. 2019-09-07. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
  47. ↑ Urribarri, Raul A. Sanchez (2011). "Courts between Democracy and Hybrid Authoritarianism: Evidence from the Venezuelan Supreme Court" . Law & Social Inquiry. 36 (4). Wiley: 854–884. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01253.x. ISSN   0897-6546. JSTOR   41349660. S2CID   232400805. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  48. ↑ Göbel, Christian (2011). "Semiauthoritarianism". 21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 258–266. doi:10.4135/9781412979351.n31. ISBN   9781412969017.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  49. ↑ Tlemcani, Rachid (2007-05-29). "Electoral Authoritarianism". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  50. ↑ "What is Hybrid Democracy?". Digital Society School. 2022-05-19. Archived from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  51. 1 2 Zinecker, Heidrun (2009). "Regime-Hybridity in Developing Countries: Achievements and Limitations of New Research on Transitions" . International Studies Review. 11 (2). [Oxford University Press, Wiley, The International Studies Association]: 302–331. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00850.x. ISSN   1521-9488. JSTOR   40389063. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
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  54. ↑ Carothers, Christopher (2018). "The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism" . Journal of Democracy. 29 (4): 129–135. doi:10.1353/jod.2018.0068. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   158234306.
  55. ↑ Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan (2002). "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism". Journal of Democracy. 13 (2). Project Muse: 51–65. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   6711009.
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