Democratic transition

Last updated
Since c. 2010, the number of countries autocratizing (blue) is higher than those democratizing (yellow). Number of countries experiencing autocratization and democratization, 1900-2000.jpg
Since c. 2010, the number of countries autocratizing (blue) is higher than those democratizing (yellow).

A democratic transition describes a phase in a countries political system as a result of an ongoing change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one [1] [2] [3] The process is known as democratisation, political changes moving in a democratic direction. [4] Democratization waves have been linked to sudden shifts in the distribution of power among the great powers, which created openings and incentives to introduce sweeping domestic reforms. [5] [6] Although transitional regimes experience more civil unrest, [7] [8] they may be considered stable in a transitional phase for decades at a time. [9] [10] [11] Since the end of the Cold War transitional regimes have become the most common form of government. [12] [13] Scholarly analysis of the decorative nature of democratic institutions concludes that the opposite democratic backsliding (autocratization), a transition to authoritarianism is the most prevalent basis of modern hybrid regimes. [14] [15] [16]

Contents

Typology

Autocratization

Countries autocratizing (red) or democratizing (blue) substantially and significantly (2010-2020), according to V-Dem Institute. Countries in grey are substantially unchanged. Countries democratizing or autocratizing substantially and significantly 2010-2020.svg
Countries autocratizing (red) or democratizing (blue) substantially and significantly (2010–2020), according to V-Dem Institute. Countries in grey are substantially unchanged.

Democratic backsliding [lower-alpha 1] is a process of regime change towards autocracy that makes the exercise of political power by the public more arbitrary and repressive. [24] [25] [26] This process typically restricts the space for public contestation and political participation in the process of government selection. [27] [28] Democratic decline involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. [29] [30] Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.

Proposed causes of democratic backsliding include economic inequality, culturally conservative reactions to societal changes, populist or personalist politics, and external influence from great power politics. During crises, backsliding can occur when leaders impose autocratic rules during states of emergency that are either disproportionate to the severity of the crisis or remain in place after the situation has improved. [31]

While regime change through military coups has declined since the end of the Cold War, more subtle forms of backsliding have increased. During the third wave of democratization in the late twentieth century, many new, weakly institutionalized democracies were established; these regimes have been most vulnerable to democratic backsliding. [32] [30] The third wave of autocratization has been ongoing since 2010, when the number of liberal democracies was at an all-time high. [33] [34] One quarter of the world's population lives under democratically backsliding hybrid regimes as of 2021. [35]

Democratisation

Map showing democratization of countries after the Cold War Global effect of 1989-1991 Revolutions.png
Map showing democratization of countries after the Cold War

Democratization, or democratisation, is the democratic transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. [36] [37]

Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. [38] How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. [39]

The opposite process is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization.

Factors

Decolonization

Decolonization [lower-alpha 2] or decolonisation [lower-alpha 3] is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. [40] The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires. [41] [42] Other scholars extend the meaning to include economic, cultural and psychological aspects of the colonial experience. [43] [44]
Except for a few absolute monarchies, most post-colonial states are either republics or constitutional monarchies. These new states had to devise constitutions, electoral systems, and other institutions of representative democracy.

Democratic globalization

Democratic globalization is a social movement towards an institutional system of global democracy. [45] One of its proponents is the British political thinker David Held. In the last decade, Held published a dozen books regarding the spread of democracy from territorially defined nation states to a system of global governance that encapsulates the entire world. For some, democratic mundialisation (from the French term mondialisation) is a variant of democratic globalisation stressing the need for the direct election of world leaders and members of global institutions by citizens worldwide; for others, it is just another name for democratic globalisation. [46]

Democracy promotion

Democracy promotion, also referred to as democracy building, can be domestic policy to increase the quality of already existing democracy or a strand of foreign policy adopted by governments and international organizations that seek to support the spread of democracy as a system of government. Among the reasons for supporting democracy include the belief that countries with a democratic system of governance are less likely to go to war, are likely to be economically better off and socially more harmonious. [47] In democracy building, the process includes the building and strengthening of democracy, in particular the consolidation of democratic institutions, including courts of law, police forces, and constitutions. [48] Some critics have argued that the United States has used democracy promotion to justify military intervention abroad. [49] [50]

Outcomes

Democratic consolidation

Democratic consolidation is the process by which a new democracy matures, in a way that it becomes unlikely to revert to authoritarianism without an external shock, and is regarded as the only available system of government within a country. [51] [52] A country can be described as consolidated when the current democratic system becomes “the only game in town”, [53] meaning no one in the country is trying to act outside of the set institutions. [54] This is the case when no significant political group seriously attempts to overthrow the democratic regime, the democratic system is regarded as the most appropriate way to govern by the vast majority of the public, and all political actors are accustomed to the fact that conflicts are resolved through established political and constitutional rules. [55] [56]

Stalled transition

Hybrid regime

Part of the Politics series
Politics
Primary topics
Political systems
Academic disciplines
Public administration
Policy
Government branches
Related topics
Subseries
A coloured voting box.svg   Politicsportal
A hybrid regime [lower-alpha 4] is a type of political system often created as a result of an incomplete democratic transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). [lower-alpha 5] Hybrid regimes are categorized as having a combination of autocratic features with democratic ones and can simultaneously hold political repressions and regular elections. [lower-alpha 5] Hybrid regimes are commonly found in developing countries with abundant natural resources such as petro-states. [74] [64] [75] Although these regimes experience civil unrest, they may be relatively stable and tenacious for decades at a time. [lower-alpha 5] There has been a rise in hybrid regimes since the end of the Cold War. [76] [77]

Measurement

Global trend report Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2022 BTI 2022 DEM.jpg
Global trend report Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2022

The democracies indices differ in whether they are categorical, such as classifying countries into democracies, hybrid regimes, and autocracies, [79] [80] or continuous values. [81] The qualitative nature of democracy indices enables data analytical approaches for studying causal mechanisms of regime transformation processes.

Democracy indices differ in scope and weighting of different aspects of democracy, including the breadth of core democratic institutions, competitiveness and inclusiveness of polyarchy, freedom of expression, various aspects of governance, democratic norm transgressions, co-option of opposition, electoral system manipulation, electoral fraud, and popular support of anti-democratic alternatives. [82] [83] [84]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Other names include autocratization, democratic decline, [18] de-democratization, [19] democratic erosion, [20] democratic decay, [21] democratic recession, [22] democratic regression, [18] and democratic deconsolidation. [23]
  2. ↑ American, Canadian, and Oxford English
  3. ↑ British English and Commonwealth English
  4. ↑ Scholars uses a variety of terms to encompass the "greyzones" between full autocracies and full democracies: [57] such as competitive authoritarianism or semi-authoritarianism or hybrid authoritarianism or electoral authoritarianism or liberal autocracy or delegative democracy or illiberal democracy or guided democracy or semi-democracy or deficient democracy or defective democracy or hybrid democracy. [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65]
  5. 1 2 3 "Some scholars argue that deficient democracies and deficient autocracies can be seen as examples of hybrid regimes, whereas others argue that hybrid regimes combine characteristics of both democratic and autocratic regimes." [59] Scholars also debate if these regimes are in transition or are inherently a stable political system. [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democracy</span> Form of government

Democracy is a system of government in which state power is vested in the people or the general population of a state. According to the United Nations, democracy "provides an environment that respects human rights and fundamental freedoms, and in which the freely expressed will of people is exercised."

Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power is held by the ruler, known as an autocrat. It includes most forms of monarchy and dictatorship, while it is contrasted with democracy and feudalism. Various definitions of autocracy exist. They may restrict autocracy to a single individual, or they may also apply autocracy to a group of rulers who wield absolute power. The autocrat has total control over the exercise of civil liberties within the autocracy, choosing under what circumstances they may be exercised, if at all. Governments may also blend elements of autocracy and democracy, forming an anocracy. The concept of autocracy has been recognized in political philosophy since ancient times.

In politics, a regime is the form of government or the set of rules, cultural or social norms, etc., that regulate the operation of a government or institution and its interactions with society. The two broad categories of regimes that appear in most literature are democratic and autocratic. However, autocratic regimes can be broken down into a subset of many different types. The key similarity between all regimes are the presence of rulers, and either formal or informal institutions.

In political science, a political system means the type of political organization that can be recognized, observed or otherwise declared by a state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratization</span> Society becoming more democratic

Democratization, or democratisation, is the democratic transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction.

The term "illiberal democracy" describes a governing system that hides its "nondemocratic practices behind formally democratic institutions and procedures". There is a lack of consensus among experts about the exact definition of illiberal democracy or whether it even exists.

In political science and in international and comparative law and economics, transitology is the study of the process of change from one political regime to another, mainly from authoritarian regimes to democratic ones rooted in conflicting and consensual varieties of economic liberalism.

Democratic consolidation is the process by which a new democracy matures, in a way that it becomes unlikely to revert to authoritarianism without an external shock, and is regarded as the only available system of government within a country. A country can be described as consolidated when the current democratic system becomes “the only game in town”, meaning no one in the country is trying to act outside of the set institutions. This is the case when no significant political group seriously attempts to overthrow the democratic regime, the democratic system is regarded as the most appropriate way to govern by the vast majority of the public, and all political actors are accustomed to the fact that conflicts are resolved through established political and constitutional rules.

In political science, the waves of democracy or waves of democratization are major surges of democracy that have occurred in history. Although the term appears at least as early as 1887, it was popularized by Samuel P. Huntington, a political scientist at Harvard University, in his article published in the Journal of Democracy and further expounded in his 1991 book, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Democratization waves have been linked to sudden shifts in the distribution of power among the great powers, which created openings and incentives to introduce sweeping domestic reforms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democracy promotion</span> Domestic of foreign policy to increase democratic rule

Democracy promotion, also referred to as democracy building, can be domestic policy to increase the quality of already existing democracy or a strand of foreign policy adopted by governments and international organizations that seek to support the spread of democracy as a system of government. Among the reasons for supporting democracy include the belief that countries with a democratic system of governance are less likely to go to war, are likely to be economically better off and socially more harmonious. In democracy building, the process includes the building and strengthening of democracy, in particular the consolidation of democratic institutions, including courts of law, police forces, and constitutions. Some critics have argued that the United States has used democracy promotion to justify military intervention abroad.

Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of democracy, civil liberties, and political plurality. It involves the use of strong central power to preserve the political status quo, and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic voting. Political scientists have created many typologies describing variations of authoritarian forms of government. Authoritarian regimes may be either autocratic or oligarchic and may be based upon the rule of a party or the military. States that have a blurred boundary between democracy and authoritarianism have some times been characterized as "hybrid democracies", "hybrid regimes" or "competitive authoritarian" states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coup d'état</span> Deposition of a government

A coup d'état, or simply a coup, is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is when a leader, having come to power through legal means, tries to stay in power through illegal means.

Anocracy, or semi-democracy, is a form of government that is loosely defined as part democracy and part dictatorship, or as a "regime that mixes democratic with autocratic features". Another definition classifies anocracy as "a regime that permits some means of participation through opposition group behavior but that has incomplete development of mechanisms to redress grievances." The term "semi-democratic" is reserved for stable regimes that combine democratic and authoritarian elements. Scholars distinguish anocracies from autocracies and democracies in their capability to maintain authority, political dynamics, and policy agendas. Similarly, the regimes have democratic institutions that allow for nominal amounts of competition. Such regimes are particularly susceptible to outbreaks of armed conflict and unexpected or adverse changes in leadership.

A hybrid regime is a type of political system often created as a result of an incomplete democratic transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one. Hybrid regimes are categorized as having a combination of autocratic features with democratic ones and can simultaneously hold political repressions and regular elections. Hybrid regimes are commonly found in developing countries with abundant natural resources such as petro-states. Although these regimes experience civil unrest, they may be relatively stable and tenacious for decades at a time. There has been a rise in hybrid regimes since the end of the Cold War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic backsliding</span> A country becoming less democratic

Democratic backsliding is a process of regime change towards autocracy that makes the exercise of political power by the public more arbitrary and repressive. This process typically restricts the space for public contestation and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic decline involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic backsliding by country</span>

Democratic backsliding, also known as autocratization, is the decline in democratic qualities of a political regime, the opposite of democratization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic backsliding in the United States</span> Periods of democratic decline in the U.S.

Democratic backsliding in the United States has been identified as a trend at the state and national levels in various indices and analyses. Democratic backsliding is "a process of regime change towards autocracy that makes the exercise of political power more arbitrary and repressive and that restricts the space for public contestation and political participation in the process of government selection".

Electoral autocracy is a hybrid regime, in which democratic institutions are imitative and adhere to authoritarian methods. In these regimes, regular elections are held, but they are accused of failing to reach democratic standards of freedom and fairness.

Democracy indices are quantitative and comparative assessments of the state of democracy for different countries according to various definitions of democracy.

References

  1. ↑ Arugay, Aries A. (2021). "Democratic Transitions". The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_190-1. ISBN   978-3-319-74336-3. S2CID   240235199.
  2. ↑ Munck, G.L. (2001). "Democratic Transitions". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. pp. 3425–3428. doi:10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01135-9. ISBN   9780080430768.
  3. ↑ Cassani, Andrea; Tomini, Luca (2019). "Authoritarian resurgence: towards a unified analytical framework". Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica. Cambridge University Press (CUP). 49 (2): 115–120. doi:10.1017/ipo.2019.14. hdl: 2434/666535 . ISSN   0048-8402. S2CID   199298876.
  4. ↑ Huntington, Samuel P. (2009). "How Countries Democratize". Political Science Quarterly. [The Academy of Political Science, Wiley]. 124 (1): 31–69. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00641.x. ISSN   0032-3195. JSTOR   25655609 . Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  5. ↑ Gunitsky, Seva (2014). "From Shocks to Waves: Hegemonic Transitions and Democratization in the Twentieth Century". International Organization. 68 (3): 561–597. doi:10.1017/S0020818314000113. ISSN   0020-8183. S2CID   232254486.
  6. ↑ Gunitsky, Seva (2017). Aftershocks. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-17233-0.
  7. ↑ Cook, Scott J; Savun, Burcu (2016). "New democracies and the risk of civil conflict". Journal of Peace Research. SAGE Publications. 53 (6): 745–757. doi:10.1177/0022343316660756. ISSN   0022-3433. S2CID   114918000.
  8. ↑ Crocker, C.A.; Hampson, F.O.; Aall, P. (2016). Managing Conflict in a World Adrift. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 156. ISBN   978-1-928096-48-1 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  9. ↑ Sönmez, Hakan (2020-09-30). "Democratic Backsliding or Stabilization?". Politikon: The IAPSS Journal of Political Science. International Association for Political Science Students. 46: 54–78. doi: 10.22151/politikon.46.3 . ISSN   2414-6633.
  10. ↑ Geddes, Barbara (1999). "What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years?". Annual Review of Political Science. Annual Reviews. 2 (1): 115–144. doi: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.115 . ISSN   1094-2939.
  11. ↑ Törnberg, Anton (2018). "Combining transition studies and social movement theory: towards a new research agenda". Theory and Society. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 47 (3): 381–408. doi: 10.1007/s11186-018-9318-6 . ISSN   0304-2421. S2CID   255015393.
  12. ↑ Leonardo Morlino; Dirk Berg-Schlosser; Bertrand Badie (6 March 2017). Political Science: A Global Perspective. SAGE. pp. 112–. ISBN   978-1-5264-1303-1. OCLC   1124515503.
  13. ↑ Brownlee, Jason (2009). "Portents of Pluralism: How Hybrid Regimes Affect Democratic Transitions". American Journal of Political Science. [Midwest Political Science Association, Wiley]. 53 (3): 515–532. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00384.x. ISSN   0092-5853. JSTOR   25548135 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  14. ↑ "Home - IDEA Global State of Democracy Report". International IDEA. Retrieved Nov 26, 2022.
  15. ↑ Hameed, Dr. Muntasser Majeed (Jun 30, 2022). "Hybrid regimes: An Overview". IPRI Journal. Islamabad Policy Research Institute - IPRI. 22 (1): 1–24. doi: 10.31945/iprij.220101 . ISSN   1684-9787. S2CID   251173436.
  16. ↑ Caballero-Anthony, M. (2009). Political Change, Democratic Transitions and Security in Southeast Asia. Routledge Security in Asia Pacific Series. Taylor & Francis. p. 7. ISBN   978-1-135-26840-4 . Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  17. ↑ Nazifa Alizada, Rowan Cole, Lisa Gastaldi, Sandra Grahn, Sebastian Hellmeier, Palina Kolvani, Jean Lachapelle, Anna Lührmann, Seraphine F. Maerz, Shreeya Pillai, and Staffan I. Lindberg. 2021. Autocratization Turns Viral. Democracy Report 2021. University of Gothenburg: V-Dem Institute. https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/74/8c/748c68ad-f224-4cd7-87f9-8794add5c60f/dr_2021_updated.pdf Archived 14 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  18. 1 2 Mietzner, Marcus (2021). "Sources of resistance to democratic decline: Indonesian civil society and its trials". Democratization. 28 (1): 161–178. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1796649. S2CID   225475139.
  19. ↑ Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) Populism: a Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.86-96. ISBN   978-0-19-023487-4
  20. ↑ Laebens, Melis G.; Lührmann, Anna (2021). "What halts democratic erosion? The changing role of accountability". Democratization. 28 (5): 908–928. doi:10.1080/13510347.2021.1897109. S2CID   234870008.
  21. ↑ Daly, Tom Gerald (2019). "Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field". Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. 11: 9–36. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2. S2CID   159354232.
  22. ↑ Huq, Aziz Z (2021). "How (not) to explain a democratic recession". International Journal of Constitutional Law . 19 (2): 723–737. doi:10.1093/icon/moab058.
  23. ↑ Chull Shin, Doh (2021). "Democratic deconsolidation in East Asia: exploring system realignments in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan". Democratization. 28 (1): 142–160. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1826438. S2CID   228959708.
  24. ↑ Hyde, Susan D. (2020). "Democracy's backsliding in the international environment". Science . 369 (6508): 1192–1196. Bibcode:2020Sci...369.1192H. doi:10.1126/science.abb2434. PMID   32883862. S2CID   221472047.
  25. ↑ Skaaning, Svend-Erik (2020). "Waves of autocratization and democratization: a critical note on conceptualization and measurement" (PDF). Democratization. 27 (8): 1533–1542. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1799194. S2CID   225378571. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2022.
  26. ↑ Lührmann, Anna; Lindberg, Staffan I. (2019). "A third wave of autocratization is here: what is new about it?". Democratization. 26 (7): 1095–1113. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2019.1582029 . S2CID   150992660. The decline of democratic regime attributes – autocratization
  27. ↑ Cassani, Andrea; Tomini, Luca (2019). "What Autocratization Is". Autocratization in post-Cold War Political Regimes. Springer International Publishing. pp. 15–35. ISBN   978-3-030-03125-1.
  28. ↑ Walder, D.; Lust, E. (2018). "Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding". Annual Review of Political Science. 21 (1): 93–113. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628 . Backsliding entails deterioration of qualities associated with democratic governance, within any regime. In democratic regimes, it is a decline in the quality of democracy; in autocracies, it is a decline in democratic qualities of governance.
  29. ↑ Lindberg, Staffan I. "The Nature of Democratic Backsliding in Europe". Carnegie Europe. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
  30. 1 2 Rocha Menocal, Alina; Fritz, Verena; Rakner, Lise (June 2008). "Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1". South African Journal of International Affairs. 15 (1): 29–40. doi:10.1080/10220460802217934. ISSN   1022-0461. S2CID   55589140. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
  31. ↑ "Pandemic Backsliding". www.v-dem.net. V-Dem. Archived from the original on 21 December 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
  32. ↑ Bermeo, Nancy (January 2016). "On Democratic Backsliding" (PDF). Journal of Democracy. 27 (1): 5–19. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0012. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   155798358. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
  33. ↑ Maerz, Seraphine F.; Lührmann, Anna; Hellmeier, Sebastian; Grahn, Sandra; Lindberg, Staffan I. (2020-05-18). "State of the world 2019: autocratization surges – resistance grows". Democratization. 27 (6): 909–927. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2020.1758670 . ISSN   1351-0347.
  34. ↑ Boese, Vanessa A.; Lundstedt, Martin; Morrison, Kelly; Sato, Yuko; Lindberg, Staffan I. (2022). "State of the world 2021: autocratization changing its nature?". Democratization. 29 (6): 983–1013. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2022.2069751 . ISSN   1351-0347. S2CID   249031421.
  35. ↑ The Global State of Democracy 2021 Archived 9 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine , International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
  36. ↑ Arugay, Aries A. (2021). "Democratic Transitions". The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_190-1. ISBN   978-3-319-74336-3. S2CID   240235199.
  37. ↑ Lindenfors, Patrik; Wilson, Matthew; Lindberg, Staffan I. (2020). "The Matthew effect in political science: head start and key reforms important for democratization". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications . 7 (1): 1–4. doi: 10.1057/s41599-020-00596-7 .
  38. ↑ Schmitz, Hans Peter (2004). "Domestic and Transnational Perspectives on Democratization". International Studies Review. [International Studies Association, Wiley]. 6 (3): 403–426. doi:10.1111/j.1521-9488.2004.00423.x. ISSN   1521-9488. JSTOR   3699697.
  39. ↑ Bogaards, Matthijs (2010). "Measures of Democratization: From Degree to Type to War". Political Research Quarterly. [University of Utah, Sage Publications, Inc.] 63 (2): 475–488. doi:10.1177/1065912909358578. ISSN   1065-9129. JSTOR   20721505. S2CID   154168435.
  40. ↑ Note however discussion of (for example) the Russian and Nazi empires below.
  41. ↑ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 255–257. ISBN   978-0028659657.
  42. ↑ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins (1995).
  43. ↑ Betts, Raymond F. (2012). "Decolonization a brief history of the word". Beyond Empire and Nation. Brill. pp. 23–37. doi:10.1163/9789004260443_004. ISBN   978-90-04-26044-3. JSTOR   10.1163/j.ctt1w8h2zm.5.
  44. ↑ Corntassel, Jeff (2012-09-08). "Re-envisioning resurgence: Indigenous pathways to decolonization and sustainable self-determination". Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society. 1 (1). ISSN   1929-8692.
  45. ↑ Rosow, S.J.; George, J. (2014). Globalization and Democracy. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 2. ISBN   978-1-4422-1810-9 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  46. ↑ Fisher, Stephen (2016-01-01). "Democratic Support and Globalization". Globalization and Domestic Politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 209–234. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198757986.003.0011. ISBN   978-0-19-875798-6.
  47. ↑ see Peter Burnell, From Evaluating Democracy Assistance to Appraising Democracy Promotion, Political Studies Association, Political Studies 2008 VOL 56
  48. ↑ "Democracy Building and Conflict Management: Overview". International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA). n.d. Archived from the original on 2006-02-09. Retrieved 2006-01-18.
  49. ↑ Mesquita, Bruce Bueno de (Spring 2004). "Why Gun-Barrel Democracy Doesn't Work". Hoover Digest . 2. Archived from the original on 2008-07-05. Also see this page.
  50. ↑ Meernik, James (1996). "United States Military Intervention and the Promotion of Democracy". Journal of Peace Research. 33 (4): 391–402. doi:10.1177/0022343396033004002. S2CID   51897214.
  51. ↑ Schedler, Andreas (1998). "What is Democratic Consolidation?". Journal of Democracy. Project Muse. 9 (2): 91–107. doi:10.1353/jod.1998.0030. ISSN   1086-3214.
  52. ↑ Encarnacion, Omar G.; Gunther, Richard; Diamandourous, P. Nikiforos; Puhle, Hans-Jurgen; Mainwaring, Scott; Scully, Timothy; Buchanan, Paul G.; Jelin, Elizabeth; Hershberg, Eric; Morlino, Leonardo (2000). "Beyond Transitions: The Politics of Democratic Consolidation". Comparative Politics. JSTOR. 32 (4): 479. doi:10.2307/422390. ISSN   0010-4159.
  53. ↑ Linz, Juan J. (Juan Jose); Stepan, Alfred C. (1996). "Toward Consolidated Democracies". Journal of Democracy. Project Muse. 7 (2): 14–33. doi:10.1353/jod.1996.0031. ISSN   1086-3214.
  54. ↑ Przeworski, Adam (1992). Democracy and the market : political and economic reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   0-521-41225-0. OCLC   476230396.
  55. ↑ Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. C. (April 1996). "Toward consolidated democracies". Journal of Democracy. 7 (2): 14–33. doi:10.1353/jod.1996.0031. S2CID   154644233 – via Project MUSE.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ↑ Cook, Scott J; Savun, Burcu (2016). "New democracies and the risk of civil conflict: The lasting legacy or military rule". Journal of Peace Research. Sage Publications, Ltd. 53 (6): 745–757. eISSN   1460-3578. ISSN   0022-3433. JSTOR   44510457 . Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  57. ↑ Gagné, Jean-François (Mar 10, 2015), Hybrid Regimes, Oxford University Press (OUP), doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0167
  58. ↑ Plattner, Marc F. (1969-12-31). "Is Democracy in Decline?". kipdf.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
  59. 1 2 "Hybrid Concepts and the Concept of Hybridity". European Consortium for Political Research. 2019-09-07. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
  60. ↑ Urribarri, Raul A. Sanchez (2011). "Courts between Democracy and Hybrid Authoritarianism: Evidence from the Venezuelan Supreme Court". Law & Social Inquiry. Wiley. 36 (4): 854–884. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01253.x. ISSN   0897-6546. JSTOR   41349660. S2CID   232400805. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  61. ↑ Göbel, Christian (2011). "Semiauthoritarianism". 21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 258–266. doi:10.4135/9781412979351.n31. ISBN   9781412969017.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  62. ↑ Tlemcani, Rachid (2007-05-29). "Electoral Authoritarianism". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  63. ↑ "What is Hybrid Democracy?". Digital Society School. 2022-05-19. Archived from the original on 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  64. 1 2 Zinecker, Heidrun (2009). "Regime-Hybridity in Developing Countries: Achievements and Limitations of New Research on Transitions". International Studies Review. [Oxford University Press, Wiley, The International Studies Association]. 11 (2): 302–331. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00850.x. ISSN   1521-9488. JSTOR   40389063. Archived from the original on 2022-11-16. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
  65. ↑ "Index". Dem-Dec. 2017-09-23. Archived from the original on 2022-11-21. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
  66. ↑ Ekman, Joakim (2009). "Political Participation and Regime Stability: A Framework for Analyzing Hybrid Regimes". International Political Science Review. 30 (1): 7–31. doi: 10.1177/0192512108097054 . ISSN   0192-5121. S2CID   145077481.
  67. ↑ Baker, A. (2021). Shaping the Developing World: The West, the South, and the Natural World. SAGE. p. 202. ISBN   978-1-0718-0709-5. Archived from the original on 2023-04-23. Retrieved 2023-04-23.
  68. ↑ "Why Parties and Elections in Dictatorships?". How Dictatorships Work. Cambridge University Press. 2018. pp. 129–153. doi:10.1017/9781316336182.006. ISBN   9781316336182.
  69. ↑ Riaz, Ali (2019). "What is a Hybrid Regime?". Voting in a Hybrid Regime. Politics of South Asia. Singapore: Springer. pp. 9–19. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-7956-7_2. ISBN   978-981-13-7955-0. ISSN   2523-8345. S2CID   198088445.
  70. ↑ Schmotz, Alexander (2019-02-13). "Hybrid Regimes". The Handbook of Political, Social, and Economic Transformation. Oxford University Press. pp. 521–525. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198829911.003.0053. ISBN   978-0-19-882991-1.
  71. ↑ Morlino, Leonardo (2011-11-01). "Are There Hybrid Regimes?". Changes for DemocracyActors, Structures, Processes. Oxford University Press. pp. 48–69. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199572533.003.0004. ISBN   978-0-19-957253-3.
  72. ↑ Подлесный, Д. В. (2016). Политология: Учебное пособие [Political Science: Textbook] (in Russian). Kharkiv: ХГУ НУА. pp. 62–65/164. Archived from the original on 2023-04-22. Retrieved 2019-08-13.
  73. ↑ Schulmann, Ekaterina (15 August 2014). "Царство политической имитации" [The kingdom of political imitation]. vedomosti.ru. Archived from the original on 2019-07-30. Retrieved 2019-08-13.
  74. ↑ Croissant, A.; Kailitz, S.; Koellner, P.; Wurster, S. (2015). Comparing autocracies in the early Twenty-first Century: Volume 1: Unpacking Autocracies - Explaining Similarity and Difference. Taylor & Francis. p. 212. ISBN   978-1-317-70018-0. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved Nov 27, 2022.
  75. ↑ Carothers, Christopher (2018). "The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism". Journal of Democracy. 29 (4): 129–135. doi:10.1353/jod.2018.0068. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   158234306.
  76. ↑ Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan (2002). "The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism". Journal of Democracy. Project Muse. 13 (2): 51–65. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   6711009.
  77. ↑ "Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War". Department of Political Science. Archived from the original on 2023-04-06. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
  78. ↑ "Global Dashboard". BTI 2022. Retrieved Apr 17, 2023.
  79. ↑ Dobratz, B.A. (2015). Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology. Taylor & Francis. p. 47. ISBN   978-1-317-34529-9 . Retrieved Apr 30, 2023.
  80. ↑ Michie, J. (2014). Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences. Taylor & Francis. pp. 95–97. ISBN   978-1-135-93226-8 . Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  81. ↑ "Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?". Our World in Data. Jun 17, 2022. Retrieved Apr 17, 2023.
  82. ↑ "The 'Varieties of Democracy' data: how do researchers measure democracy?". Our World in Data. 2022-11-30. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  83. ↑ "Breaking Down Democracy". Freedom House. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  84. ↑ Democracy and Autocracy, Why do Democracies Develop and Decline, Vol. 21(1) June 2023, Democracy and Autocracy Section, American Political Science Association

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.