Parliamentary republic

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A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process. [1] [2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.

Contents

Forms of government.svg
Systems of government
Republican forms of government:
   Presidential republics with an executive presidency separate from the legislature
   Semi-presidential system with both an executive presidency and a separate head of government that leads the rest of the executive, who is appointed by the president and accountable to the legislature
   Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial and non-executive president, where a separate head of government leads the executive and is dependent on the confidence of the legislature
  Republics in which a combined head or directory of state and government is elected or nominated by the legislature
   One-party states in which all other parties are either outlawed or only enjoy limited and controlled participation in elections.

Monarchical forms of government:
   Constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial and non-executive monarch, where a separate head of government leads the executive
   Semi-constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial monarch, but where royalty still hold significant executive or legislative power
   Absolute monarchies where the monarch leads the executive

  Countries where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended
  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems (e.g. provisional government or unclear political situations)

Powers

In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister). [3] [4] [ clarification needed ]

However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.

In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Austria and Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.

Historical development

Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system. [5]

Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.

Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.[ original research? ]

Commonwealth of Nations

Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu, and most recently Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.

Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.

Full parliamentary republics
Country/territoryHead of stateHead of state elected byCameral structureParliamentary republic adoptedPrevious government formNotes
Flag of Albania.svg  Albania Bajram Begaj Parliament, by three-fifths majorityUnicameral1991 One-party state
Flag of Armenia.svg  Armenia Vahagn Khachaturyan Parliament, by absolute majorityUnicameral2018 [note 1] Semi-presidential republic
Flag of Austria.svg  Austria Alexander Van der Bellen Direct election, by two-round system Bicameral1945One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss )
Flag of Bangladesh.svg  Bangladesh Mohammed Shahabuddin ParliamentUnicameral1991 [note 2] Presidential republic
Flag of Barbados.svg  Barbados Sandra Mason Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nominationBicameral2021Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm)
Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg  Bosnia and Herzegovina Christian Schmidt
Milorad Dodik
Šefik Džaferović
Željko Komšić
Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post voteBicameral1991One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
Flag of Bulgaria.svg Bulgaria Rumen Radev Direct election, by two-round systemUnicameral1991One-party state
Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Republic of China (Taiwan) Tsai Ing-wen Direct election, by first-past-the-post
Nominally by the National Assembly [note 3]
Unicameral
Nominally Tricameral [note 4]
1946
Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996
One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China)
Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire)
Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
Flag of Croatia.svg Croatia Zoran Milanović Direct election, by two-round systemUnicameral2000 Semi-presidential republic
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czech Republic Petr Pavel Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority)Bicameral1993Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia)
Flag of Dominica.svg  Dominica Sylvanie Burton Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1978 Associated state of the United Kingdom
Flag of Estonia.svg  Estonia Alar Karis Parliament, by two-thirds majorityUnicameral1991 [note 5] Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state
Flag of Ethiopia.svg  Ethiopia Sahle-Work Zewde Parliament, by two-thirds majorityBicameral1991One-party state
Flag of Fiji.svg  Fiji Wiliame Katonivere Parliament, by majorityUnicameral2014Military dictatorship
Flag of Finland.svg  Finland Alexander Stubb Direct election, by two-round systemUnicameral2000 [note 6] Semi-presidential republic
Flag of Georgia.svg  Georgia Salome Zourabichvili Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majorityUnicameral2018 [note 7] Semi-presidential republic
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany Frank-Walter Steinmeier Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates [lower-alpha 1] ), by absolute majority [6] Two unicameral institutions [note 8] [7] 1949 [note 9] One-party state

(Nazi Germany)

Flag of Greece.svg  Greece Katerina Sakellaropoulou Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1975Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy
Flag of Hungary.svg  Hungary Katalin Novák Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1990One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic)
Flag of Iceland.svg  Iceland Guðni Th. Jóhannesson Direct election, by first-past-the-post voteUnicameral1944Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark)
Flag of India.svg  India Droupadi Murmu Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff voteBicameral1950Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)
Flag of Iraq.svg  Iraq Abdul Latif Rashid Parliament, by two-thirds majorityUnicameral [note 10] 2005One-party state
Flag of Ireland.svg  Ireland Michael D. Higgins Direct election, by instant-runoff vote Bicameral1949 [note 11] To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)
1936–1949: ambiguous
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel Isaac Herzog Parliament, by majorityUnicameral2001 Semi-parliamentary republic
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy Sergio Mattarella Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballotsBicameral1946Constitutional monarchyPrime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament.
Flag of Kosovo.svg  Kosovo Vjosa Osmani Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballotsUnicameral2008 UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia)
Flag of Latvia.svg  Latvia Edgars Rinkēvičs ParliamentUnicameral1991 [note 12] Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state
Flag of Lebanon.svg  Lebanon Michel Aoun ParliamentUnicameral1941Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon)
Flag of Malta.svg  Malta George Vella Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1974Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [8] ) [9]
Flag of Mauritius.svg  Mauritius Prithvirajsing Roopun Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1992Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [10] [11] ) [9]
Flag of Moldova.svg  Moldova Maia Sandu Direct election, by two-round system
(since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority)
Unicameral2001Semi-presidential republic
Flag of Montenegro.svg  Montenegro Milo Đukanović Direct election, by two-round systemUnicameral1992One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro)
Flag of Nepal.svg    Nepal Ram Chandra Poudel Parliament and state legislatorsBicameral [12] 2008 [note 13] Constitutional monarchy
Flag of North Macedonia.svg  North Macedonia Stevo Pendarovski Direct election, by two-round systemUnicameral1991One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan Arif Alvi Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff voteBicameral2010 [13] [14] Assembly-independent republic
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland Andrzej Duda Direct election, by majorityBicameral1989One-party state (Polish People's Republic)Poland has also been identified as a de facto semi-presidential republic as the President does exercise some form of governance and appoints the Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision is then subject to a parliamentary vote of confidence. [15] [16] [17] [18]
Flag of Samoa.svg  Samoa Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II ParliamentUnicameral1960Trust Territory of New Zealand
Flag of Serbia.svg  Serbia Aleksandar Vučić Direct election, by two-round systemUnicameral1991One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro)
Flag of Singapore.svg  Singapore Tharman ShanmugaratnamDirect election (since 1993)Unicameral1965 State of Malaysia
Flag of Slovakia.svg  Slovakia Zuzana Čaputová Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament)Unicameral1993Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia)
Flag of Slovenia.svg  Slovenia Nataša Pirc Musar Direct election, by two-round systemBicameral1991One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)
Flag of Somalia.svg  Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud ParliamentBicameral2012 [note 14] One-party state
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Trinidad and Tobago Christine Kangaloo ParliamentBicameral1976Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [19] ) [9]
Flag of Vanuatu.svg  Vanuatu Nikenike Vurobaravu Parliament and regional council presidents, by majorityUnicameral1980British–French condominium (New Hebrides)
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
CountryHead of stateHead of state elected byCameral structureParliamentary republic with an executive presidency adoptedPrevious government formNotes
Flag of Botswana.svg  Botswana Mokgweetsi Masisi Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1966British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate)
Flag of Kiribati.svg  Kiribati Taneti Maamau Direct election, by first-past-the-post voteUnicameral1979ProtectorateFollowing a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting. [20]
Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg  Marshall Islands David Kabua ParliamentBicameral1979UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)
Flag of Nauru.svg  Nauru Russ Kun ParliamentUnicameral1968UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
Flag of South Africa.svg  South Africa Cyril Ramaphosa Parliament, by majorityBicameral1961Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [21] [22] [23] ) [9] Was a full parliamentary republic from 19611984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984.
Assembly-independent systems
CountryHead of stateHead of state elected byCameral structureAssembly-independent republic adoptedPrevious government formNotes
Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg  Federated States of Micronesia Wesley Simina Parliament, by majorityUnicameral1986UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms. [24]
Flag of Guyana.svg  Guyana Irfaan Ali Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote [25] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority)Unicameral1980Full parliamentary republic
Flag of San Marino.svg  San Marino Francesco Mussoni
Giacomo Simoncini
ParliamentUnicameral1291 Theocracy (part of the Papal States)Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent
Flag of Suriname.svg  Suriname Chan Santokhi ParliamentUnicameral1987Full parliamentary republic
Directorial systems
CountryHead of stateHead of state elected byCameral structureParliamentary republic adoptedPrevious government formNotes
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland Guy Parmelin
Ignazio Cassis
Ueli Maurer
Simonetta Sommaruga
Alain Berset
Karin Keller-Sutter
Viola Amherd
Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both housesBicameral1848Confederation of statesAlso has citizen-initiated referendums
CountryBecame a
parliamentary
republic
Status
changed
Changed toReason for changeNotes
Full parliamentary republics
Flag of Abkhazian SSR.svg SSR Abkhazia 19211931One-party parliamentary republicCreation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia
Flag of the Abkhaz ASSR.svg  Abkhaz ASSR 19311991Full parliamentary republicConstitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia
Flag of the Republic of Abkhazia.svg  Abkhazia 1991 1994 Semi-presidential republic New constitution adopted
Flag of Armenia (3-2).svg  First Republic of Armenia 19181920 One-party parliamentary republic Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic
Flag of Armenian SSR.svg  Armenian SSR 1920 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Armenia
Flag of Austria.svg First Austrian Republic 19201929 Semi-presidential system Constitutional amendment
Flag of Azerbaijan 1918.svg  Azerbaijan Democratic Republic 19181920One-party parliamentary republicCreation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic
Flag of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1956-1991).svg  Azerbaijan SSR 19201990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Azerbaijan
Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991-1995).svg  Belarusian Democratic Republic 19181920One-party parliamentary republicCreation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
Flag of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1951-1991).svg  Byelorussian SSR 19201990Full parliamentary republicConstitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Byelorussia
Flag of Belarus (1918, 1991-1995).svg  Belarus 1990 1994 Presidential republic New constitution adopted
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 19611963 Presidential system Referendum
Flag of Burma (1948-1974).svg Burma (present-day Myanmar)19481962 Military dictatorship 1962 Burmese coup d'état
Flag of Chile.svg Chile 18911924 Military junta 1924 Chilean coup d'état
19251925 Presidential system New constitution
Flag of the Republic of China.svg Republic of China 19471972 (de facto) Presidential system Constitution suspended The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary) Semi-presidential system Additional articles of the Constitution adopted
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg First Czechoslovak Republic 19201939 One-party state Munich agreement
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Third Czechoslovak Republic 19451948One-party parliamentary republic Coup d'état
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Fourth Czechoslovak Republic 19481989 Multi-party parliamentary republic Velvet Revolution One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Fifth Czechoslovak Republic 19891992State dissolved Velvet Divorce
Flag of the State of East Indonesia.svg State of East Indonesia 19461950State dissolvedMerged to the Republic of Indonesia
Flag of Estonia.svg First Republic of Estonia 19201934 One-party parliamentary republic 1934 Estonian coup d'état In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
19341938 One-party presidential republic New constitution adopted
Flag of France (1794-1815, 1830-1958).svg French Third Republic 18701940 Puppet state World War II German occupation
Flag of France (1794-1815, 1830-1958).svg French Fourth Republic 19461958 Semi-presidential system New constitution adopted
Flag of Georgia (1918-1921, 4-5).svg  Democratic Republic of Georgia 19181921One-party parliamentary republicCreation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia
Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.svg  Georgian SSR 1921 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republicConstitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Georgia
Flag of Guyana.svg  Guyana 19701980Assembly-independent republicNew constitution adopted
Flag of Hungary (1946-1949, 1956-1957; 1-2 aspect ratio).svg Hungary 19461949 One-party state Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary
Flag of Indonesia.svg  Indonesia 19451959 Presidential system Presidential constitution reinstated
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel 19481996 Semi-parliamentary system Constitutional amendment
Flag of Kenya.svg  Kenya 20082013 Presidential system New constitution and elections A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013
The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013.
Flag of South Korea (1949-1984).svg Second Republic of Korea 19601961 Military junta 16 May coup
Flag of the Kazakh SSR.svg  Kazakh SSR 1936 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Kazakhstan
Flag of Kyrgyz SSR.svg  Kirghiz SSR 19361990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Kirghizia
Flag of Kyrgyzstan (2023).svg  Kyrgyzstan 2010 2021 Presidential republic Referendum The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence. [26]
Flag of Latvia.svg First Republic of Latvia 19221934 One-party parliamentary republic 1934 Latvian coup d'état In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
19341940State dissolved World War II Soviet occupation
Flag of Lithuania 1918-1940.svg First Republic of Lithuania 19201926 One-party state 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
Flag of Lithuania (1988-2004).svg  Lithuania 1990 1992 Multi-party semi-presidential republic New constitution adopted In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established.
Flag of Moldavian SSR.svg  Moldavian SSR (present-day Moldova)19401990Multi-party semi-presidential republicConstitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Moldavia
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria 19631966 Military dictatorship
(which led in 1979 to the democratic, presidential Second Nigerian Republic)
Coup d'état
Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan 19561958 Military dictatorship 1958 Pakistani coup d'état
19731978 1977 Pakistani coup d'état
19971999 1999 Pakistani coup d'état
20022003Assembly-independent republic Constitutional amendment
Flag of Poland (1919-1928).svg Second Polish Republic 19191935 Presidential system New constitution adopted
Flag of Portugal.svg First Portuguese Republic 1911 1926 Military dictatorship
(which led in 1933
to the Estado Novo one-party presidential republic)
28 May coup
Flag of the Philippines (1898-1901).svg First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic)18991901 Military dictatorship
(De facto United States Colony)
Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces
Flag of the Philippines (navy blue).svg Fourth Philippine Republic 19731981 Semi-presidential system
(de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.)
Constitutional amendment
Flag of the Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville) (1960-1963).svg Republic of the Congo 19601965 Military dictatorship
(De facto one-party state)
1965 Congolese coup d'état
Flag of Rhodesia (1968-1979).svg  Rhodesia 1970 1979 Parliamentary system Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Political rights were restricted to the white minority
Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.svg  Russian SFSR 1917 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republic Referendum
Flag of the Soviet Union.svg  Soviet Union 19221990Multi-party semi-presidential republicConstitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989
One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Flag of the First Spanish Republic.svg First Spanish Republic 1873 1874 Constitutional monarchy Restoration of the monarchy
Flag of Spain 1931 1939.svg Second Spanish Republic 1931 1939 One-party state
(which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947)
Coup d'état
Flag of Suriname.svg  Suriname 19751987Assembly-independent republicNew constitution adopted
Flag of Sri Lanka.svg  Sri Lanka 1972 1978 Semi-presidential system New constitution adopted
Flag of Syria (1932-1958; 1961-1963).svg Syrian Republic 19301958State dissolvedCreation of the United Arab Republic Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system
Flag of Syria (1932-1958; 1961-1963).svg Syrian Arab Republic 19611963 One-party presidential system 1963 Syrian coup d'état
Flag of Transvaal.svg Transvaal Republic 18521902 Colony of the British Empire Second Boer War
Flag of Tajik SSR.svg  Tajik SSR 19291990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Tajikistan
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 1923 2018 Presidential system Referendum
Flag of the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic.svg  Turkmen SSR 1925 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Turkmenistan
Flag of Uganda.svg  Uganda 19631966 One-party state Suspension of the constitution
Flag of the Ukrainian State.svg  Ukrainian People's Republic 19171918 Client state 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état
19181919One-party parliamentary republicCreation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
1921State dissolved Treaty of Riga
Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1949-1991).svg  Ukrainian SSR 1919 1991 Multi-party semi-presidential republicConstitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Ukraine
Flag of the Uzbek SSR.svg  Uzbek SSR 1924 1990 Presidential republic Constitutional amendmentHad a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Uzbekistan
Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg  Yugoslavia 1945 1953Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency Constitutional amendment Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia
Flag of Zimbabwe Rhodesia.svg  Zimbabwe Rhodesia 1979 1979 Dependent territory Reversion to Southern Rhodesia
Flag of Zimbabwe.svg  Zimbabwe 19801987 Presidential system Constitutional amendment
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
CountryBecame a
parliamentary
republic
with an executive
presidency
Status
changed
Changed toReason for changeNotes
Flag of The Gambia.svg  Gambia 19701982 Presidential system Constitutional amendment The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982.
Flag of Kenya.svg  Kenya 19642008Full parliamentary systemCoalition and power-sharingOriginally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections.
A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013.
Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg  Yugoslavia 19531963Assembly-independent republic New constitution One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Assembly-independent systems
CountryBecame an
assembly-
independent
republic
Status
changed
Changed toReason for changeNotes
Flag of Ghana.svg First Republic of Ghana 19601966 Military dictatorship
(Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana)
Coup d'état
Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan 19851997Full parliamentary republic Constitutional amendment
20032010 Constitutional amendment
Flag of Yugoslavia (1992-2003); Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (2003-2006).svg  Serbia and Montenegro 19922000Semi-presidential republic Constitutional amendment
Flag of Tanganyika (1961-1964).svg  Tanganyika 19621964State dissolvedCreation of the United Republic of Tanzania Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system
Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg  Yugoslavia 19631980Directorial republic New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980.
Directorial systems
Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg  Yugoslavia 19801992 Breakup of Yugoslavia One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia

See also

Notes

  1. Changed after the 2015 referendum.
  2. Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
  3. The Constitution of the Republic of China went into effect on 25 December 1947 as the Chinese Civil War was underway. On 1 October 1949, the Kuomintang-led Republic of China (ROC) was succeeded in Mainland China by the People's Republic of China, a single-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party. The ROC government was then confined to the island of Taiwan from 7 December. The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which established direct presidential elections since 1996.
  4. Under the Additional Articles, the Control Yuan ceased to be a parliamentary chamber in 1993 and the National Assembly was dissolved in 2005 leaving the Legislative Yuan as the unicameral chamber. Functions of the National Assembly were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and nationwide referendums. According to Judicial Yuan Interpretation no. 76, Shall the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan be considered en masse as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations? issued on May 3, 1957: The Constitution was enacted according to the exhortation of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen. In addition to the National Assembly, five Yuans have been established, the concept of which is not really analogous to the separation of powers system. The National Assembly representing all the nationals exercises the political power, the Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative institution of the nation and the Control Yuan is the highest monitoring institution of the nation. All of them are composed of representatives or members that are directly or indirectly elected by the people. Their functions and powers are similar to those important powers exercised by the parliaments of democratic nations. Although some of their approaches to the exercise of power, such as a regular annual assembly, quorum and resolution by the majority are not the same as those of parliaments of democratic nations, the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan, from the perspective of the nature of their statuses and functions in the Constitution, should be considered as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations.
  5. Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
  6. Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 ISBN   9780719078538), he quotes Nousiainen, Jaakko (June 2001). "From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies . 24 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00048. as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
  7. "Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 29 November 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
  8. The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 Länder (States) of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament. However the Federal Constitutional Court itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision.
  9. In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.
  10. Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
  11. The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
  12. Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
  13. Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
  14. Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.
  1. The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Armenia</span>

The politics of Armenia take place in the framework of the parliamentary representative democratic republic of Armenia, whereby the president of Armenia is the head of state and the prime minister of Armenia the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and Parliament.

A head of state is the public persona of a sovereign state. The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers; the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more.

Separation of powers is the division of a state's government into branches, each with separate, independent powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with others. The typical division into three branches of government, sometimes called the trias politica model, includes a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary. It can be contrasted with the fusion of powers in monarchies, but also parliamentary and semi-presidential systems where there can be overlap in membership and functions between different branches, especially the executive and legislative.

In the executive branch, the head of government is the highest or the second-highest official of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, a group of ministers or secretaries who lead executive departments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">President of Germany</span> Head of state of the Federal Republic of Germany

The president of Germany, officially titled the Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany, is the head of state of Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Veto</span> Legal power to stop an official action, usually enactment of legislation

A veto is a legal power to unilaterally stop an official action. In the most typical case, a president or monarch vetoes a bill to stop it from becoming law. In many countries, veto powers are established in the country's constitution. Veto powers are also found at other levels of government, such as in state, provincial or local government, and in international bodies.

The Government of Poland takes the form of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. However, its form of government has also been identified as semi-presidential.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parliamentary system</span> Form of government

A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a system of democratic government where the head of government derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of the legislature, typically a parliament, to which they are accountable.

A presidency is an administration or the executive, the collective administrative and governmental entity that exists around an office of president of a state or nation. Although often the executive branch of government, and often personified by a single elected person who holds the office of "president", in practice, the presidency includes a much larger collective of people, such as chiefs of staff, advisers and other bureaucrats. Although often led by a single person, presidencies can also be of a collective nature, such as the presidency of the European Union is held on a rotating basis by the various national governments of the member states. Alternatively, the term presidency can also be applied to the governing authority of some churches, and may even refer to the holder of a non-governmental office of president in a corporation, business, charity, university, etc. or the institutional arrangement around them. For example, "the presidency of the Red Cross refused to support his idea." Rules and support to discourage vicarious liability leading to unnecessary pressure and the early termination of term have not been clarified. These may not be as yet supported by state let initiatives. Contributory liability and fraud may be the two most common ways to become removed from term of office and/or to prevent re-election.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidential system</span> Form of government

A presidential system, or single executive system, is a form of government in which a head of government, typically with the title of president, leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch in systems that use separation of powers. This head of government is in most cases also the head of state. In a presidential system, the head of government is directly or indirectly elected by a group of citizens and is not responsible to the legislature, and the legislature cannot dismiss the president except in extraordinary cases. A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system, where the head of government comes to power by gaining the confidence of an elected legislature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semi-presidential republic</span> System of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet

A semi-presidential republic, or dual executive republic, is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has an executive head of state; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitution of the Republic of China</span> Supreme law of the East Asian country

The Constitution of the Republic of China is the fifth and current constitution of the Republic of China (ROC), ratified by the Kuomintang during the Constituent National Assembly session on 25 December 1946, in Nanjing, and adopted on 25 December 1947. The constitution, along with its Additional Articles, remains effective in ROC-controlled territories.

Cohabitation is a system of divided government that occurs in semi-presidential systems, such as France, whenever the president is from a different political party than the majority of the members of parliament. It occurs because such a system forces the president to name a premier who will be acceptable to the majority party within parliament. Thus, cohabitation occurs because of the duality of the executive: an independently elected president and a prime minister who must be acceptable both to the president and to the legislature.

An indirect election or hierarchical voting is an election in which voters do not choose directly among candidates or parties for an office, but elect people who in turn choose candidates or parties. It is one of the oldest forms of elections and is used by many countries for heads of state, cabinets, heads of government, and/or upper houses. It is also used for some supranational legislatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prime Minister of Turkey</span> Head of government of the Turkish government (1920–2018)

The prime minister of Turkey, officially the prime minister of the Republic of Turkey, was the head of government of the Republic of Turkey from 1920 to 2018, who led a political coalition in the Turkish Parliament and presided over the cabinet. Throughout the political history of Turkey, functions and powers of the post have changed occasionally. Prior to its dissolution as a result of the 2017 Constitutional Referendum, the holder of the premiership was generally the dominant figure in Turkish politics, outweighing the president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Government of the Republic of China</span>

The Government of the Republic of China is the national government of the Republic of China (ROC) whose de facto territory currently consists of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other island groups in the "free area". Governed by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) since 2016, the president is the head of state. The government consists of the presidency and five branches (Yuan): the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan, and Control Yuan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitution of Armenia</span> Supreme law of Armenia

The Constitution of Armenia was adopted by a nationwide Armenian referendum on July 5, 1995. This constitution established Armenia as a democratic, sovereign, social, and constitutional state. Yerevan is defined as the state's capital. Power is vested in its citizens, who exercise it directly through the election of government representatives. Decisions related to changes in constitutional status or to an alteration of borders are subject to a vote of the citizens of Armenia exercised in a referendum. There are 117 articles in the 1995 constitution. On November 27, 2005, a nationwide constitutional referendum was held and an amended constitution was adopted. The constitution was amended again in a national referendum on December 6, 2015 that changed the political structure from a semi-presidential system to a parliamentary republic.

The Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China are the revisions and constitutional amendments to the original constitution to meet the requisites of the nation and the political status of Taiwan "prior to national unification". The Additional Articles are usually attached after the original constitution as a separate document. It also has its own preamble and article ordering different from the original constitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semi-parliamentary system</span> System where voters vote simultaneously for both prime minister and members of legislature

Semi-parliamentary system can refer to either a prime-ministerial system, in which voters simultaneously vote for both members of legislature and the prime minister, or to a system of government in which the legislature is split into two parts that are both directly elected – one that has the power to remove the members of the executive by a vote of no confidence and another that does not. The former was first proposed by Maurice Duverger, who used it to refer to Israel from 1996 to 2001. The second was identified by German academic Steffen Ganghof.

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