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Republicanism |
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A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process. [1] [2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.
Systems of government | |||||
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This section needs additional citations for verification .(February 2019) |
In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister). [3] [4] [ clarification needed ]
However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Austria and Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.
Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system. [5]
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.[ original research? ]
Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu, and most recently Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
Full parliamentary republics | ||||||
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Country/territory | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
Albania | Bajram Begaj | Parliament, by three-fifths majority | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
Armenia | Vahagn Khachaturyan | Parliament, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018 [note 1] | Semi-presidential republic | |
Austria | Alexander Van der Bellen | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1945 | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss ) | |
Bangladesh | Mohammed Shahabuddin | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991 [note 2] | Presidential republic | |
Barbados | Sandra Mason | Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination | Bicameral | 2021 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Christian Schmidt Milorad Dodik Šefik Džaferović Željko Komšić | Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
Bulgaria | Rumen Radev | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
Republic of China (Taiwan) | Tsai Ing-wen | Direct election, by first-past-the-post Nominally by the National Assembly [note 3] | Unicameral Nominally Tricameral [note 4] | 1946 Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996 | One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China) Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire) | Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China. |
Croatia | Zoran Milanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | |
Czech Republic | Petr Pavel | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | Bicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
Dominica | Sylvanie Burton | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1978 | Associated state of the United Kingdom | |
Estonia | Alar Karis | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1991 [note 5] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
Ethiopia | Sahle-Work Zewde | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
Fiji | Wiliame Katonivere | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2014 | Military dictatorship | |
Finland | Alexander Stubb | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 [note 6] | Semi-presidential republic | |
Georgia | Salome Zourabichvili | Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018 [note 7] | Semi-presidential republic | |
Germany | Frank-Walter Steinmeier | Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates [lower-alpha 1] ), by absolute majority [6] | Two unicameral institutions [note 8] [7] | 1949 [note 9] | One-party state | |
Greece | Katerina Sakellaropoulou | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1975 | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | |
Hungary | Katalin Novák | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1990 | One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic) | |
Iceland | Guðni Th. Jóhannesson | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1944 | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | |
India | Droupadi Murmu | Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1950 | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | |
Iraq | Abdul Latif Rashid | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral [note 10] | 2005 | One-party state | |
Ireland | Michael D. Higgins | Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1949 [note 11] | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) 1936–1949: ambiguous | |
Israel | Isaac Herzog | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-parliamentary republic | |
Italy | Sergio Mattarella | Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots | Bicameral | 1946 | Constitutional monarchy | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. |
Kosovo | Vjosa Osmani | Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | Unicameral | 2008 | UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia) | |
Latvia | Edgars Rinkēvičs | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991 [note 12] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
Lebanon | Michel Aoun | Parliament | Unicameral | 1941 | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | |
Malta | George Vella | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1974 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [8] ) [9] | |
Mauritius | Prithvirajsing Roopun | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1992 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [10] [11] ) [9] | |
Moldova | Maia Sandu | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-presidential republic | |
Montenegro | Milo Đukanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1992 | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | |
Nepal | Ram Chandra Poudel | Parliament and state legislators | Bicameral [12] | 2008 [note 13] | Constitutional monarchy | |
North Macedonia | Stevo Pendarovski | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
Pakistan | Arif Alvi | Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 2010 [13] [14] | Assembly-independent republic | |
Poland | Andrzej Duda | Direct election, by majority | Bicameral | 1989 | One-party state (Polish People's Republic) | Poland has also been identified as a de facto semi-presidential republic as the President does exercise some form of governance and appoints the Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision is then subject to a parliamentary vote of confidence. [15] [16] [17] [18] |
Samoa | Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II | Parliament | Unicameral | 1960 | Trust Territory of New Zealand | |
Serbia | Aleksandar Vučić | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro) | |
Singapore | Tharman Shanmugaratnam | Direct election (since 1993) | Unicameral | 1965 | State of Malaysia | |
Slovakia | Zuzana Čaputová | Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | Unicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
Slovenia | Nataša Pirc Musar | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
Somalia | Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | Parliament | Bicameral | 2012 [note 14] | One-party state | |
Trinidad and Tobago | Christine Kangaloo | Parliament | Bicameral | 1976 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [19] ) [9] | |
Vanuatu | Nikenike Vurobaravu | Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | Unicameral | 1980 | British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | |
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | ||||||
Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
Botswana | Mokgweetsi Masisi | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1966 | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | |
Kiribati | Taneti Maamau | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1979 | Protectorate | Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting. [20] |
Marshall Islands | David Kabua | Parliament | Bicameral | 1979 | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | |
Nauru | Russ Kun | Parliament | Unicameral | 1968 | UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | |
South Africa | Cyril Ramaphosa | Parliament, by majority | Bicameral | 1961 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm [21] [22] [23] ) [9] | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. |
Assembly-independent systems | ||||||
Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Assembly-independent republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
Federated States of Micronesia | Wesley Simina | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1986 | UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms. [24] |
Guyana | Irfaan Ali | Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote [25] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1980 | Full parliamentary republic | |
San Marino | Francesco Mussoni Giacomo Simoncini | Parliament | Unicameral | 1291 | Theocracy (part of the Papal States) | Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent |
Suriname | Chan Santokhi | Parliament | Unicameral | 1987 | Full parliamentary republic | |
Directorial systems | ||||||
Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
Switzerland | Guy Parmelin Ignazio Cassis Ueli Maurer Simonetta Sommaruga Alain Berset Karin Keller-Sutter Viola Amherd | Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses | Bicameral | 1848 | Confederation of states | Also has citizen-initiated referendums |
Country | Became a parliamentary republic | Status changed | Changed to | Reason for change | Notes |
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Full parliamentary republics | |||||
SSR Abkhazia | 1921 | 1931 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia |
Abkhaz ASSR | 1931 | 1991 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia |
Abkhazia | 1991 | 1994 | Semi-presidential republic | New constitution adopted | |
First Republic of Armenia | 1918 | 1920 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic | |
Armenian SSR | 1920 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Armenia |
First Austrian Republic | 1920 | 1929 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | |
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic | 1918 | 1920 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic | |
Azerbaijan SSR | 1920 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Azerbaijan |
Belarusian Democratic Republic | 1918 | 1920 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic | |
Byelorussian SSR | 1920 | 1990 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Byelorussia |
Belarus | 1990 | 1994 | Presidential republic | New constitution adopted | |
Brazil | 1961 | 1963 | Presidential system | Referendum | |
Burma (present-day Myanmar) | 1948 | 1962 | Military dictatorship | 1962 Burmese coup d'état | |
Chile | 1891 | 1924 | Military junta | 1924 Chilean coup d'état | |
1925 | 1925 | Presidential system | New constitution | ||
Republic of China | 1947 | 1972 (de facto) | Presidential system | Constitution suspended | The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China. |
1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary) | Semi-presidential system | Additional articles of the Constitution adopted | |||
First Czechoslovak Republic | 1920 | 1939 | One-party state | Munich agreement | |
Third Czechoslovak Republic | 1945 | 1948 | One-party parliamentary republic | Coup d'état | |
Fourth Czechoslovak Republic | 1948 | 1989 | Multi-party parliamentary republic | Velvet Revolution | One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia |
Fifth Czechoslovak Republic | 1989 | 1992 | State dissolved | Velvet Divorce | |
State of East Indonesia | 1946 | 1950 | State dissolved | Merged to the Republic of Indonesia | |
First Republic of Estonia | 1920 | 1934 | One-party parliamentary republic | 1934 Estonian coup d'état | In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. |
1934 | 1938 | One-party presidential republic | New constitution adopted | ||
French Third Republic | 1870 | 1940 | Puppet state | World War II German occupation | |
French Fourth Republic | 1946 | 1958 | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted | |
Democratic Republic of Georgia | 1918 | 1921 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia | |
Georgian SSR | 1921 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Georgia |
Guyana | 1970 | 1980 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution adopted | |
Hungary | 1946 | 1949 | One-party state | Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary | |
Indonesia | 1945 | 1959 | Presidential system | Presidential constitution reinstated | |
Israel | 1948 | 1996 | Semi-parliamentary system | Constitutional amendment | |
Kenya | 2008 | 2013 | Presidential system | New constitution and elections | A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013 The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013. |
Second Republic of Korea | 1960 | 1961 | Military junta | 16 May coup | |
Kazakh SSR | 1936 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Kazakhstan |
Kirghiz SSR | 1936 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Kirghizia |
Kyrgyzstan | 2010 | 2021 | Presidential republic | Referendum | The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence. [26] |
First Republic of Latvia | 1922 | 1934 | One-party parliamentary republic | 1934 Latvian coup d'état | In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. |
1934 | 1940 | State dissolved | World War II Soviet occupation | ||
First Republic of Lithuania | 1920 | 1926 | One-party state | 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état | In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. |
Lithuania | 1990 | 1992 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | New constitution adopted | In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established. |
Moldavian SSR (present-day Moldova) | 1940 | 1990 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Moldavia |
Nigeria | 1963 | 1966 | Military dictatorship (which led in 1979 to the democratic, presidential Second Nigerian Republic) | Coup d'état | |
Pakistan | 1956 | 1958 | Military dictatorship | 1958 Pakistani coup d'état | |
1973 | 1978 | 1977 Pakistani coup d'état | |||
1997 | 1999 | 1999 Pakistani coup d'état | |||
2002 | 2003 | Assembly-independent republic | Constitutional amendment | ||
Second Polish Republic | 1919 | 1935 | Presidential system | New constitution adopted | |
First Portuguese Republic | 1911 | 1926 | Military dictatorship (which led in 1933 to the Estado Novo one-party presidential republic) | 28 May coup | |
First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic) | 1899 | 1901 | Military dictatorship (De facto United States Colony) | Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces | |
Fourth Philippine Republic | 1973 | 1981 | Semi-presidential system (de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.) | Constitutional amendment | |
Republic of the Congo | 1960 | 1965 | Military dictatorship (De facto one-party state) | 1965 Congolese coup d'état | |
Rhodesia | 1970 | 1979 | Parliamentary system | Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia | Political rights were restricted to the white minority |
Russian SFSR | 1917 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Referendum | |
Soviet Union | 1922 | 1990 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989 One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
First Spanish Republic | 1873 | 1874 | Constitutional monarchy | Restoration of the monarchy | |
Second Spanish Republic | 1931 | 1939 | One-party state (which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947) | Coup d'état | |
Suriname | 1975 | 1987 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution adopted | |
Sri Lanka | 1972 | 1978 | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted | |
Syrian Republic | 1930 | 1958 | State dissolved | Creation of the United Arab Republic | Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system |
Syrian Arab Republic | 1961 | 1963 | One-party presidential system | 1963 Syrian coup d'état | |
Transvaal Republic | 1852 | 1902 | Colony of the British Empire | Second Boer War | |
Tajik SSR | 1929 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Tajikistan |
Turkey | 1923 | 2018 | Presidential system | Referendum | |
Turkmen SSR | 1925 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Turkmenistan |
Uganda | 1963 | 1966 | One-party state | Suspension of the constitution | |
Ukrainian People's Republic | 1917 | 1918 | Client state | 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état | |
1918 | 1919 | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic | ||
1921 | State dissolved | Treaty of Riga | |||
Ukrainian SSR | 1919 | 1991 | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 One-party system under the Communist Party of Ukraine |
Uzbek SSR | 1924 | 1990 | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Uzbekistan |
Yugoslavia | 1945 | 1953 | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman One-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia |
Zimbabwe Rhodesia | 1979 | 1979 | Dependent territory | Reversion to Southern Rhodesia | |
Zimbabwe | 1980 | 1987 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | |
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | |||||
Country | Became a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency | Status changed | Changed to | Reason for change | Notes |
Gambia | 1970 | 1982 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982. |
Kenya | 1964 | 2008 | Full parliamentary system | Coalition and power-sharing | Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections. A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013. |
Yugoslavia | 1953 | 1963 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia |
Assembly-independent systems | |||||
Country | Became an assembly- independent republic | Status changed | Changed to | Reason for change | Notes |
First Republic of Ghana | 1960 | 1966 | Military dictatorship (Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana) | Coup d'état | |
Pakistan | 1985 | 1997 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | |
2003 | 2010 | Constitutional amendment | |||
Serbia and Montenegro | 1992 | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | |
Tanganyika | 1962 | 1964 | State dissolved | Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania | Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system |
Yugoslavia | 1963 | 1980 | Directorial republic | New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980. |
Directorial systems | |||||
Yugoslavia | 1980 | 1992 | — | Breakup of Yugoslavia | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia |
The politics of Armenia take place in the framework of the parliamentary representative democratic republic of Armenia, whereby the president of Armenia is the head of state and the prime minister of Armenia the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and Parliament.
A head of state is the public persona of a sovereign state. The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers; the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more.
Separation of powers is the division of a state's government into branches, each with separate, independent powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with others. The typical division into three branches of government, sometimes called the trias politica model, includes a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary. It can be contrasted with the fusion of powers in monarchies, but also parliamentary and semi-presidential systems where there can be overlap in membership and functions between different branches, especially the executive and legislative.
In the executive branch, the head of government is the highest or the second-highest official of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, a group of ministers or secretaries who lead executive departments.
The president of Germany, officially titled the Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany, is the head of state of Germany.
A veto is a legal power to unilaterally stop an official action. In the most typical case, a president or monarch vetoes a bill to stop it from becoming law. In many countries, veto powers are established in the country's constitution. Veto powers are also found at other levels of government, such as in state, provincial or local government, and in international bodies.
The Government of Poland takes the form of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. However, its form of government has also been identified as semi-presidential.
A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a system of democratic government where the head of government derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of the legislature, typically a parliament, to which they are accountable.
A presidency is an administration or the executive, the collective administrative and governmental entity that exists around an office of president of a state or nation. Although often the executive branch of government, and often personified by a single elected person who holds the office of "president", in practice, the presidency includes a much larger collective of people, such as chiefs of staff, advisers and other bureaucrats. Although often led by a single person, presidencies can also be of a collective nature, such as the presidency of the European Union is held on a rotating basis by the various national governments of the member states. Alternatively, the term presidency can also be applied to the governing authority of some churches, and may even refer to the holder of a non-governmental office of president in a corporation, business, charity, university, etc. or the institutional arrangement around them. For example, "the presidency of the Red Cross refused to support his idea." Rules and support to discourage vicarious liability leading to unnecessary pressure and the early termination of term have not been clarified. These may not be as yet supported by state let initiatives. Contributory liability and fraud may be the two most common ways to become removed from term of office and/or to prevent re-election.
A presidential system, or single executive system, is a form of government in which a head of government, typically with the title of president, leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch in systems that use separation of powers. This head of government is in most cases also the head of state. In a presidential system, the head of government is directly or indirectly elected by a group of citizens and is not responsible to the legislature, and the legislature cannot dismiss the president except in extraordinary cases. A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system, where the head of government comes to power by gaining the confidence of an elected legislature.
A semi-presidential republic, or dual executive republic, is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has an executive head of state; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence.
The Constitution of the Republic of China is the fifth and current constitution of the Republic of China (ROC), ratified by the Kuomintang during the Constituent National Assembly session on 25 December 1946, in Nanjing, and adopted on 25 December 1947. The constitution, along with its Additional Articles, remains effective in ROC-controlled territories.
Cohabitation is a system of divided government that occurs in semi-presidential systems, such as France, whenever the president is from a different political party than the majority of the members of parliament. It occurs because such a system forces the president to name a premier who will be acceptable to the majority party within parliament. Thus, cohabitation occurs because of the duality of the executive: an independently elected president and a prime minister who must be acceptable both to the president and to the legislature.
An indirect election or hierarchical voting is an election in which voters do not choose directly among candidates or parties for an office, but elect people who in turn choose candidates or parties. It is one of the oldest forms of elections and is used by many countries for heads of state, cabinets, heads of government, and/or upper houses. It is also used for some supranational legislatures.
The prime minister of Turkey, officially the prime minister of the Republic of Turkey, was the head of government of the Republic of Turkey from 1920 to 2018, who led a political coalition in the Turkish Parliament and presided over the cabinet. Throughout the political history of Turkey, functions and powers of the post have changed occasionally. Prior to its dissolution as a result of the 2017 Constitutional Referendum, the holder of the premiership was generally the dominant figure in Turkish politics, outweighing the president.
The Government of the Republic of China is the national government of the Republic of China (ROC) whose de facto territory currently consists of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other island groups in the "free area". Governed by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) since 2016, the president is the head of state. The government consists of the presidency and five branches (Yuan): the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan, and Control Yuan.
The Constitution of Armenia was adopted by a nationwide Armenian referendum on July 5, 1995. This constitution established Armenia as a democratic, sovereign, social, and constitutional state. Yerevan is defined as the state's capital. Power is vested in its citizens, who exercise it directly through the election of government representatives. Decisions related to changes in constitutional status or to an alteration of borders are subject to a vote of the citizens of Armenia exercised in a referendum. There are 117 articles in the 1995 constitution. On November 27, 2005, a nationwide constitutional referendum was held and an amended constitution was adopted. The constitution was amended again in a national referendum on December 6, 2015 that changed the political structure from a semi-presidential system to a parliamentary republic.
The Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China are the revisions and constitutional amendments to the original constitution to meet the requisites of the nation and the political status of Taiwan "prior to national unification". The Additional Articles are usually attached after the original constitution as a separate document. It also has its own preamble and article ordering different from the original constitution.
Semi-parliamentary system can refer to either a prime-ministerial system, in which voters simultaneously vote for both members of legislature and the prime minister, or to a system of government in which the legislature is split into two parts that are both directly elected – one that has the power to remove the members of the executive by a vote of no confidence and another that does not. The former was first proposed by Maurice Duverger, who used it to refer to Israel from 1996 to 2001. The second was identified by German academic Steffen Ganghof.
Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.