Direct election

Last updated

Direct election is a system of choosing political officeholders in which the voters directly cast ballots for the persons or political party that they desire to see elected. [1] The method by which the winner or winners of a direct election are chosen depends upon the electoral system used. The most commonly used systems are the plurality system and the two-round system for single-winner elections, such as a presidential election, and proportional representation for the election of a legislature or executive. [2]

Contents

By contrast, in an indirect election, the voters elect a body which in turn elects the officeholder in question. [3]

In a double direct election, the elected representative serves on two councils, typically a lower-tier municipality and an upper-tier regional district or municipality.

Examples

Legislatures

Heads of state

History of direct presidential elections

The idea that heads of state be elected directly by the people progressed slowly throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. [9] This differs from parliamentary systems where executives derive power from the legislative body. [10]

Africa

Many African nations have moved from parliamentary to presidential systems. Regardless of constitutional structures, presidents often have immense power over other political decision-making bodies. [11] Given this power, much of the political violence around elections stems from the elections of presidents. [12] Additionally, recent coups and conflict have postponed direct presidential elections in several African countries. [13]

Asia

The overwhelming majority of democracies in Asia are parliamentary, rather than presidential systems. Based on constitutional design, the Philippines is the only head of state elected by popular vote. [14] Although classified as a semi-presidential system, South Korea in political reality has a strong presidential system as well based on changes in 1987 to its constitution. [15]

Europe

The first major European country to use direct elections was France (1848). However, if no candidate received a majority of the vote the National Assembly chose the winner from the top five candidates. As the so-called Second Republic only lasted for one presidential term, this never happened. [16] Germany (the Weimar Republic) was the first European country to use direct election of a president without intervention by the legislature. [17] Both these systems were replaced by authoritarian systems within a number of years, with indirect presidential elections instated with the restoration of democracy (in 1871 and 1949, in West Germany, respectively). Currently, Europe has a mix of parliamentary republics, presidential republics, where the president is elected directly by the people, and semi-presidential republics - including contemporary France - which have a president elected directly and a prime minister responsible to the parliament. [18]

Colonial legacies

A major debate exists regarding colonial legacies and the promotion of democracy around the world. [19] In terms of direct elections, former British colonies are less likely to hold direct elections for heads of state. Additionally no monarchies have direct elections for head of state since by definition the head of state is unelected. [20]

North America

United States

The conceptual origins of direct presidential elections stem from the U.S. Constitution (1787) through the Electoral College. The Framers intended for the a small group of electors, through methods determined by each state, to elect the president. Thus in practice this represents a form of indirect election. [21]

South America

Bolstered by opposition groups, institutional and constitutional change in the 1980s and 1990s led to direct elections of presidents in many South American countries. [22] [23] These changes created centralized power in presidential positions, often blurring the line of separation of powers and making them powerful decision-makers over the legislature and cabinet. [24] [25]

Advantages and disadvantages of directly electing the head of state

A common political debate, particularly as countries consider governmental reforms, is whether or not direct elections of heads of state strengthen democratic practices among citizens. Selection mechanisms for heads of state can lead to varying outcomes in terms of voter interest, turnout, and overall engagement. [26] For example, some scholars argue that direct elections will mobilize voters and increase their trust in the political process, particularly in emerging democracies. [27] Others note that frequent direct elections may decrease turnout due to voter fatigue and apathy. [28]

Direct elections in legislatures and parliaments

Legislatures

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Armenia</span>

The politics of Armenia take place in the framework of the parliamentary representative democratic republic of Armenia, whereby the president of Armenia is the head of state and the prime minister of Armenia the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and Parliament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Iceland</span>

The politics of Iceland take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the president is the head of state, while the prime minister of Iceland serves as the head of government in a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the parliament, the Althingi. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

An electoral college is a set of electors who are selected to elect a candidate to particular offices. Often these represent different organizations, political parties or entities, with each organization, political party or entity represented by a particular number of electors or with votes weighted in a particular way. The United States has been the only democracy in the 21st century that still uses an electoral college to select its executive president. The other democracies that used an electoral college for these elections switched to direct elections in the 19th or 20th century.:215

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parliamentary system</span> Form of government

A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a system of democratic government where the head of government derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of the legislature, typically a parliament, to which they are accountable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semi-presidential republic</span> System of government

A semi-presidential republic, or dual executive republic, is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has an executive head of state; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet, although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force the cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elections in Russia</span> Political elections for public offices in Russia

On the federal level, Russia elects a president as head of state and a parliament, one of the two chambers of the Federal Assembly. The president is elected for, at most, two consecutive six-year terms by the people. The Federal Assembly has two chambers. The State Duma has 450 members, elected for five-year terms. The Federation Council is not directly elected; each of the 85 federal subjects of Russia sends 2 delegates to the Federal Council, for a total of 170 members.

A party system is a concept in comparative political science concerning the system of government by political parties in a democratic country. The idea is that political parties have basic similarities: they control the government, have a stable base of mass popular support, and create internal mechanisms for controlling funding, information and nominations.

An indirect election or hierarchical voting is an election in which voters do not choose directly among candidates or parties for an office, but elect people who in turn choose candidates or parties. It is one of the oldest forms of elections and is used by many countries for heads of state, cabinets, heads of government, and/or upper houses. It is also used for some supranational legislatures.

The Socialist Party of Senegal is a political party in Senegal. It was the ruling party in Senegal from independence in 1960 until 2000. In the 2000 presidential election, the party's candidate and previous incumbent, Abdou Diof, was defeated by the leader of the Senegalese Democratic Party, Abdoulaye Wade. Ousmane Tanor Dieng has been the First Secretary of the party since 1996 and was the presidential candidate in 2007 and 2012. The best-known figure of the Socialist Party was Léopold Sédar Senghor, the first President of Senegal.

Islami Jatiya Oikya Front was a short-lived political alliance in Bangladesh. Formed in 2001, it was one of the three principal contenders in that year's parliamentary elections. Led by the Jatiya Party (Ershad), it also included the Islami Shashontantra Andolan (ISA) and three smaller parties.

Poland has a multi-party political system. On the national level, Poland elects the head of state – the president – and a legislature. There are also various local elections, referendums and elections to the European Parliament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elections in Egypt</span> Political elections for public offices in Egypt

Elections in Egypt are held for the president and a bicameral legislature. The president of Egypt is elected for a six-year term by popular vote after draft amendments to the 2013 constitution altered the presidential term limits from the original four years to six years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elections in Kenya</span> Political elections for public offices in Kenya

Elections in Kenya take place within the framework of a multi-party democracy and a presidential system. The President, Senate and National Assembly are directly elected by voters, with elections organised by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elections in Rwanda</span> Political elections for public offices in Rwanda

Elections in Rwanda are manipulated in various ways, which include banning opposition parties, arresting or assassinating critics, and electoral fraud. According to its constitution, Rwanda is a multi-party democracy with a presidential system. In practice, it functions as a one-party state ruled by the Rwandan Patriotic Front and its leader Paul Kagame. The President and majority of members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected, whilst the Senate is indirectly elected and partly appointed.

Presidential elections were held in Iceland on 29 June 1996. The result was a victory for Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, who received 41.4% of the vote.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2009 Nigerien parliamentary election</span> Parliamentary election held in Niger

Parliamentary elections were held in Niger on 20 October 2009, after President Mamadou Tandja dissolved the National Assembly in May 2009 and a constitution referendum was held in August 2009. The elections were boycotted by most opposition parties, and saw Tandja's National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD) win a landslide victory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semi-parliamentary system</span> System where voters vote simultaneously for both prime minister and members of legislature

Semi-parliamentary system can refer to either a prime-ministerial system, in which voters simultaneously vote for both members of legislature and the prime minister, or to a system of government in which the legislature is split into two parts that are both directly elected – one that has the power to remove the members of the executive by a vote of no confidence and another that does not. The former was first proposed by Maurice Duverger, who used it to refer to Israel from 1996 to 2001. The second was identified by German academic Steffen Ganghof.

In political science, economic voting is a theoretical perspective which argues that voter behavior is heavily influenced by the economic conditions in their country at the time of the election. According to the classical form of this perspective, voters tend to vote more in favor of the incumbent candidate and party when the economy is doing well than when it is doing poorly. This view has been supported by considerable empirical evidence. There is a substantial literature which shows that across the world's democracies, economic conditions shape electoral outcomes. Economic voting is less likely when it is harder for voters to attribute economic performance to specific parties and candidates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter turnout in the European Parliament elections</span>

Elections to the European Parliament saw declining voter turnout between 1979 and 2014. However, voter turnout in 2019 European elections increased by 8 points compared to 2014. In spite of this exception for all Member States, the electoral mobilization remains weak compared to the national parliamentary elections. Moreover, turnout significantly differs from one country to another in Europe and across a time: in 2019 Belgium citizens participated the most with 88.47% and Slovakians the less with 22.74%. The potential factors that might influence these trends and their implications have attracted great scholarly attention. Identifying and analysing the factors that determine the relative low turnout at European elections is therefore critical, as it is one element that weakens the democratic legitimacy of the European Parliament.

The mixed single vote (MSV) or positive vote transfer system (PVT) is a mixed-member electoral system, where voters cast a single vote in an election, which used both for electing a local candidate and as a vote for a party affiliated with that candidate according to the rules of the electoral system. Unlike the more widespread mixed proportional and mixed majoritarian systems where voters cast two votes, split-ticket voting is not possible in MSV.

References

  1. StudyHQ (19 January 2021). "Direct Election | Definition, Features, Pros & Cons — StudyHQ (2021 PDF)" . Retrieved 2021-11-15.
  2. Bormann, Nils-Christian; Golder, Matt (2013-06-01). "Democratic Electoral Systems around the world, 1946–2011". Electoral Studies. 32 (2): 360–369. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2013.01.005. ISSN   0261-3794. S2CID   154632837.
  3. StudyHQ (19 January 2021). "Indirect Election | Definition, Features, Merits And Demerits — StudyHQ (2021 PDF)" . Retrieved 2021-11-15.
  4. "How are members of the European Parliament elected? | News | European Parliament". www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  5. "House of Representatives | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  6. "U.S. Senate: About Electing and Appointing Senators". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
  7. "U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
  8. "The President: Four questions answered". elysee.fr. 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  9. Blais, André; Massicotte, Louis; Dobrzynska, Agnieszka (1997-12-01). "Direct presidential elections: a world summary". Electoral Studies. 16 (4): 441–455. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(97)00020-6. ISSN   0261-3794.
  10. Badie, Bertrand; Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Morlino, Leonardo (2011), "Parliamentary Systems", International Encyclopedia of Political Science, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 1767–1771, doi:10.4135/9781412994163, ISBN   9781412959636 , retrieved 2023-03-13
  11. van de Walle, Nicolas (2003). "Presidentialism and clientelism in Africa's emerging party systems". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 41 (2): 297–321. doi:10.1017/S0022278X03004269. ISSN   0022-278X.
  12. Kaaba, O'Brien; Fombad, Charles M. (2021). "Adjudication of Disputed Presidential Elections in Africa". academic.oup.com. pp. 361–400. doi:10.1093/oso/9780192894779.003.0014. ISBN   978-0-19-289477-9 . Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  13. "Africa's Complex 2022 Elections". Africa Center for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  14. Electoral politics in Southeast & East Asia. Gabriele Bruns, Aurel Croissant, Marei John. Singapore: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. 2002. ISBN   981-04-6020-1. OCLC   223396951.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. "The Weakness of the Strongest Institution: South Korea's Presidential System". The Geopolitics. 2022-02-19. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  16. Blais, André; Massicotte, Louis; Dobrzynska, Agnieszka (1997-12-01). "Direct presidential elections: a world summary". Electoral Studies. 16 (4): 441–455. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(97)00020-6. ISSN   0261-3794.
  17. Bartsch, Kolja. "German Bundestag - The Weimar Republic (1918 - 1933)". German Bundestag. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  18. "Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections". Congressional Research Service. February 13, 2023.
  19. Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2019-09-01). "British colonialism and democracy: Divergent inheritances and diminishing legacies". Journal of Comparative Economics. 47 (3): 487–503. doi:10.1016/j.jce.2019.02.001. ISSN   0147-5967. S2CID   159451218.
  20. Blais, André; Massicotte, Louis; Dobrzynska, Agnieszka (1997-12-01). "Direct presidential elections: a world summary". Electoral Studies. 16 (4): 441–455. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(97)00020-6. ISSN   0261-3794.
  21. "Interpretation: Article II, Section 1, Clauses 2 and 3 | Constitution Center". National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  22. Hakim, Peter; Lowenthal, Abraham F (1991). "Latin America's Fragile Democracies" (PDF). Journal of Democracy. 2 (3): 16–29. doi:10.1353/jod.1991.0042. ISSN   1086-3214. S2CID   154861342.
  23. Barczak, Monica (2001). "Representation By Consultation? The Rise of Direct Democracy in Latin America". Latin American Politics and Society. 43 (3): 37–59. doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2001.tb00178.x. ISSN   1531-426X. S2CID   155019931.
  24. Palanza, Valeria (2021-01-22). "The Presidency in Latin American Politics". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1674. ISBN   978-0-19-022863-7 . Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  25. Mainwaring, Scott (1990). "Presidentialism in Latin America". Latin American Research Review. 25 (1): 157–179. doi: 10.1017/S0023879100023256 . ISSN   0023-8791. JSTOR   2503565. S2CID   252947271.
  26. Tavits, Margit (2009). "Direct Presidential Elections and Turnout in Parliamentary Contests". Political Research Quarterly. 62 (1): 42–54. doi:10.1177/1065912908317026. ISSN   1065-9129. JSTOR   27759844. S2CID   153942262.
  27. Lindberg, Staffan I. (2006). Democracy and elections in Africa. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-0-8018-8925-7. OCLC   213305486.
  28. Norris, Pippa (2004). Electoral Engineering: Voting Rules and Political Behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511790980. ISBN   978-0-521-82977-9.
  29. "How are members of the European Parliament elected? | News | European Parliament". www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  30. "House of Representatives | Definition, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  31. "U.S. Senate: About Electing and Appointing Senators". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2022-09-02.
  32. "U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution". www.senate.gov. Retrieved 2022-09-02.