Indirect election

Last updated

An indirect election or hierarchical voting, [1] is an election in which voters do not choose directly among candidates or parties for an office (direct voting system), but elect people who in turn choose candidates or parties. It is one of the oldest forms of elections and is used by many countries for heads of state (such as presidents), cabinets, heads of government (such as prime ministers), and/or upper houses. It is also used for some supranational legislatures.

Contents

Positions that are indirectly elected may be chosen by a permanent body (such as a parliament) or by a special body convened solely for that purpose (such as an electoral college).

In nearly all cases the body that controls the executive branch (such as a cabinet) is elected indirectly. This includes the cabinets of most parliamentary systems; members of the public elect the parliamentarians, who then elect the cabinet. Upper houses, especially in federal republics, are often indirectly elected, either by the corresponding lower house or cabinet. Similarly, supranational legislatures can be indirectly elected by constituent countries' legislatures or executive governments. The indirect democracy is run by electoral college or president.

An election can be partially indirect, for example in the case of indirect single transferable voting, where only eliminated candidates select other candidates to transfer their vote share to.

Heads of state

A head of state is the official leader and representative of a country. [2] The head of state position can vary from ceremonial figurehead with limited power to powerful leader depending on the government structure and historical legacy of the country. [3] For instance, in some cases heads of state inherit the position through a monarchy whereas others are indirectly or directly elected such as presidents. [4] Several examples are included below.

United States

The President of the United States is elected indirectly. In a US presidential election, eligible members of the public vote for the electors of an Electoral College, who have previously pledged publicly to support a particular presidential candidate. [5] When the Electoral College sits, soon after the election, it formally elects the candidate that has won a majority of the members of the Electoral College. Members of the federal cabinet, including the vice president, are in practice nominated by the president, and are thus elected indirectly. [6] The Electoral College is a controversial issue in U.S. politics, especially following presidential elections when voting is polarized geographically in such a way that the electoral college elects a candidate who did not win an absolute majority of the popular vote. [7] The National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, if enacted, would effectively replace the indirect election via the Electoral College with a de facto plurality-based direct election. [8]

China

The Constitution of the People's Republic of China specifies a system of indirect democracy. [9] The National People's Congress elects the president, also known as the state chairman, who serves as head of state. [10] The power of the presidency is largely ceremonial, the vast majority of power stems from the president's position as leader of the Communist Party and head of the military. [11]

European Union

The president of the European Commission is nominated by the European Council and confirmed or denied by the directly elected European Parliament (see Elections to the European Parliament). [12]

Parliamentary systems

Republics with parliamentary systems usually elect their head of state indirectly (e.g. Germany, Italy, Estonia, Latvia, Malta, Hungary, India, Israel, Bangladesh). [13] Several parliamentary republics, such as Ireland, Austria, Croatia, Bulgaria and the Czech Republic, operate using a semi-presidential system with a directly elected president distinct from the prime minister. [14]

Heads of government

A head of government is in charge of the daily business of government and overseeing central government institutions. In presidential systems the president is the head of government and head of state. In parliamentary systems the head of government is usually the leader of the party with the most seats in the legislature. [15] Several examples of heads of government who are chosen through indirect elections are summarized below.

Prime minister

The most prominent position in parliamentary democracies is the prime ministership. [16]

Under the Westminster system, named after and typified by the parliament of the United Kingdom, a prime minister (or first minister, premier, or chief minister) is the person that can command the largest coalition of supporters in parliament. In almost all cases, the prime minister is the leader of a political party (or coalition) that has a majority in the parliament, or the lower house (such as the House of Commons), or in the situation that no one party has a majority then the largest party or a coalition of smaller parties may attempt to form a minority government. The prime minister is thus indirectly elected as political parties elect their own leader through internal democratic process, while the general public choose from amongst the local candidates of the various political parties or independents. [17]

The Westminster model continues to be used in a number of Commonwealth countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Singapore and the United Kingdom. [18] Additionally many nations colonized by the British Empire inherited the Westminster model following their independence. [19]

In Spain, the Congress of Deputies votes on a motion of confidence of the king's nominee (customarily the party leader whose party controls the Congress) and the nominee's political manifesto, an example of an indirect election of the prime minister of Spain. [20]

Federal Chancellor

In Germany, the federal chancellor - the most powerful position on the federal level - is elected indirectly by the Bundestag, which in turn is elected by the population. [21] The federal president, the head of state, proposes candidates for the chancellor's office. Although this has never happened, the Bundestag may in theory also choose to elect another person into office, which the president has to accept. [22]

Appointment

Some countries have nonpartisan heads of government who are appointed by the president, such as the Prime Minister of Singapore. [23]

Upper houses

Members of the German Bundesrat are appointed (delegated) by the Landtag of the various states.

The Control Yuan of China, formerly a parliamentary chamber, was elected directly by its respective legislatures across the country: five from each province, two from each directly administered municipality, eight from Mongolia (by 1948 only the Inner Mongolian provinces were represented), eight from Tibet and eight from the overseas Chinese communities. As originally envisioned both the President and Vice President of the Control Yuan were to be elected by and from the members like the speaker of many other parliamentary bodies worldwide. The Control Yuan became a sole auditory body in Taiwan in 1993 after democratisation.

In France, election to the upper house of Parliament, the Sénat , is indirect. Electors (called "Grands électeurs") are locally elected representatives.

Members of the Indian Rajya Sabha (upper house of parliament) are largely elected directly by the Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly) of the various states and Union territories; some are appointed by the president.

Members of the United States Senate were elected directly by the Legislature of the various states until ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913. Since that time they have been elected by direct popular vote.

In some cases, most officials, including most members of legislatures – national and subnational – may be regarded as elected indirectly, because they are preselected by political parties. This kind of system is typified by the United States, at both the federal and state levels. That is primary elections and/or caucuses are responsible for choosing candidates, whose preselection is ratified by a party convention.

Some examples of indirectly elected supranational legislatures include: the parliamentary assemblies of the Council of Europe, OSCE, the WEU and NATO – in all of these cases, voters elect national parliamentarians, who in turn elect some of their own members to the assembly. The same applies to bodies formed by representatives chosen by a national government, e.g. the United Nations General Assembly – assuming the national governments in question are democratically elected in the first place.

Indirect single transferable voting is used to elect some members of the Senate in Pakistan. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of the Czech Republic</span>

The Czech Republic is a unitary parliamentary republic, in which the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Government of the Czech Republic, which reports to the Chamber of Deputies. The legislature is exercised by the Parliament. The Czech Parliament is bicameral: the upper house of the Parliament is the Senate, and the lower house is the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of 81 members who are elected for six years. The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members who are elected for four years. The judiciary system is topped by the trio of the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court.

Politics in Estonia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in the Estonian parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government, which is led by the prime minister. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Estonia is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO.

Politics of India works within the framework of the country's Constitution. India is a parliamentary secular democratic republic in which the president of India is the head of state & first citizen of India and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. It is based on the federal structure of government, although the word is not used in the Constitution itself. India follows the dual polity system, i.e. federal in nature, that consists of the central authority at the centre and states at the periphery. The Constitution defines the organizational powers and limitations of both central and state governments; it is well recognised, fluid and considered supreme, i.e. the laws of the nation must conform to it. India is officially declared a secular and socialist state as per the Constitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Mongolia</span>

The politics of Mongolia takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential multi-party representative democracy. Executive power is exercised by the government, which is headed by the prime minister. The president is the head of state, but holds limited authority over the executive branch of the government, unlike full presidential republics like the United States. Legislative power is vested in parliament. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Singapore</span>

Singapore is a parliamentary representative democratic republic in which the president of Singapore is the head of state, the prime minister of Singapore is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet from the parliament, and to a lesser extent, the president. Cabinet has the general direction and control of the government and is accountable to Parliament. There are three separate branches of government: the legislature, executive and judiciary abiding by the Westminster system. Singapore has been described as being a de facto one-party state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Westminster system</span> Parliamentary system of government

The Westminster system, or Westminster model, is a type of parliamentary government that incorporates a series of procedures for operating a legislature, first developed in England. Key aspects of the system include an executive branch made up of members of the legislature, and that is responsible to the legislature; the presence of parliamentary opposition parties; and a ceremonial head of state who is separate from the head of government. The term derives from the Palace of Westminster, which has been the seat of the Westminster Parliament in England and later the United Kingdom since the 13th century. The Westminster system is often contrasted with the presidential system that originated in the United States, or with the semi-presidential system, based on the government of France.

Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic, in which the president of Albania is the head of state and the prime minister of Albania is the head of government in a multi-party system. The executive power is exercised by the Government and the prime minister with its Cabinet. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Albania. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system of Albania is laid out in the 1998 constitution. The Parliament adopted the current constitution on 28 November 1998. Historically Albania has had many constitutions. Initially constituted as a monarchy in 1913, Albania became briefly a republic in 1925, and then a authoritarian monarchy in 1928. In 1939 Albania was invaded by Fascist Italian forces, imposing a puppet state, and later occupied by Nazi German forces. Following the partisan liberation from the Nazis in 1944 a provisional government was formed, which by 1946 had transformed into a communist one-party state. In March 1991 democracy was restored with multi-party elections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Barbados</span>

The politics of Barbados function within a framework of a parliamentary republic with strong democratic traditions; constitutional safeguards for nationals of Barbados include: freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association.

An electoral college is a body whose only task is to elect a candidate to a particular office. It is mostly used in the political context for a constitutional body that appoints the head of state or government, and sometimes the upper parliamentary chamber, in a democracy. Its members, called electors, are either elected by the people for this purpose or by certain subregional entities or social organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parliamentary system</span> Government system

A parliamentarydemocracy is a form of government where the head of government derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of a majority of the legislature, to which they are held accountable. This head of government is usually, but not always, distinct from a ceremonial head of state. This is in contrast to a presidential system, which features a president who is not fully accountable to the legislature, and cannot be replaced by a simple majority vote.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidential system</span> Form of government

A presidential system, or single executive system, is a form of government in which a head of government, typically with the title of president, leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch in systems that use separation of powers. This system was first introduced in the United States.

Cohabitation is a system of divided government that occurs in semi-presidential systems, such as France, whenever the president is from a different political party than the majority of the members of parliament. It occurs because such a system forces the president to name a premier who will be acceptable to the majority party within parliament. Thus, cohabitation occurs because of the duality of the executive: an independently elected president and a prime minister who must be acceptable both to the president and to the legislature.

Direct election is a system of choosing political officeholders in which the voters directly cast ballots for the persons or political party that they wanted to see elected. The method by which the winner or winners of a direct election are chosen depends upon the electoral system used. The most commonly used systems are the plurality system and the two-round system for single-winner elections, such as a presidential election, and proportional representation for the election of a legislature or executive.

Elections in Lebanon are allotted to occur every four years. Every citizen is allowed to vote, but the positions are constitutionally allocated by religious affiliation. Lebanon was ranked second most electoral democracy in the Middle East according to V-Dem Democracy indices in 2023 with a score of 0.157 out of 1. Those who are above 21 and are non active military personal are permitted to vote.

Poland has a multi-party political system. On the national level, Poland elects the head of state – the president – and a legislature. There are also various local elections, referendums and elections to the European Parliament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Montenegro</span>

The Politics of Montenegro takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Montenegro is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Montenegro. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Economist Intelligence Unit rated Montenegro a "flawed democracy" in 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parliamentary republic</span> Form of government

A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature. There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process. Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.

In a governmental system, a party leader acts as the official representative of their political party, either to a legislature or to the electorate. Depending on the country, the individual colloquially referred to as the "leader" of a political party may officially be party chair, secretary, or the highest political office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semi-parliamentary system</span> Form of government

Semi-parliamentary system can refer to one of the following:

References

  1. ↑ "Tradeoffs is a voting systems, Lucas Böttcher, Georgia Kernell" (PDF).
  2. ↑ "Head of state". Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved April 11, 2023.
  3. ↑ Strohmeier, Gerd; Wittlinger, Ruth (2010-03-01). "Parliamentary Heads of State: Players or Figureheads? The Case of Horst Köhler". West European Politics. 33 (2): 237–257. doi:10.1080/01402380903538856. ISSN   0140-2382. S2CID   154522953.
  4. ↑ Prindle, David F. (1991). "Head of State and Head of Government in Comparative Perspective". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 21 (1): 55–71. ISSN   0360-4918. JSTOR   27550663.
  5. ↑ Ross, Robert (2016). "Federalism and the Electoral College: The Development of the General Ticket Method for Selecting Presidential Electors". Publius: The Journal of Federalism. 46 (2): 147–169. doi:10.1093/publius/pjv043.
  6. ↑ Uscinski, Joseph (January 2012). "Smith (and Jones) Go to Washington: Democracy and Vice-Presidential Selection". PS: Political Science & Politics. 45 (1): 58–66. doi:10.1017/S1049096511001715. ISSN   1537-5935. S2CID   155697464.
  7. ↑ Waller, Allyson (2021-01-05). "The Electoral College Explained". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  8. ↑ "The National Popular Vote, Explained". www.brennancenter.org. 21 April 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  9. ↑ "中国人大网". www.npc.gov.cn. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  10. ↑ "A Path to 'True' Indirect Democracy in China". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  11. ↑ Ruwitch, John (March 10, 2023). "China's Xi Jinping, as expected, gets 5 more years as state president". NPR.org. Retrieved April 11, 2023.
  12. ↑ "Elections and appointments - institutions | European Union". european-union.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  13. ↑ Sargentich, Thomas O. (1993). "The Presidential and Parliamentary Models of National Government". American University International Law Review. 8 (2/3): 579–592.
  14. ↑ "Parliamentary System". Annenberg Classroom. 2017-08-04. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  15. ↑ "head of government". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  16. ↑ Glasgow, Garrett; Golder, Matt; Golder, Sona N. (October 2011). "Who "Wins"? Determining the Party of the Prime Minister: WHO "WINS"?". American Journal of Political Science. 55 (4): 937–954. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00524.x. S2CID   154083816.
  17. ↑ Harding, Andrew (January 2004). "The 'Westminster Model' Constitution Overseas: Transplantation, Adaptation and Development in Commonwealth States". Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal. 4 (2): 143–166. doi:10.1080/14729342.2004.11421442. ISSN   1472-9342. S2CID   147155846.
  18. ↑ "The Westminster system". www.parliament.act.gov.au. 2020-01-10. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  19. ↑ o'Brien, Derek (2020). "The Commonwealth Caribbean and the Westminster Model". academic.oup.com. pp. 131–161. doi:10.1093/law/9780198793045.003.0006. ISBN   978-0198793045 . Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  20. ↑ Heywood, Paul (1991-04-01). "Governing a new democracy: The power of the prime minister in Spain". West European Politics. 14 (2): 97–115. doi:10.1080/01402389108424847. ISSN   0140-2382.
  21. ↑ "Germany – EU member country profile | European Union". european-union.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  22. ↑ "Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany". www.gesetze-im-internet.de.
  23. ↑ "Political structure". country.eiu.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  24. ↑ Waqar, M. (2020). Gender Quotas and Political Dynasties: Explaining Women's Substantive Representation in Pakistan's National Assembly (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.