Science diplomacy

Last updated

Science diplomacy describes how scientific exchanges and the cross-border collaboration of scientists or scientific organizations can perform diplomatic functions in the context of international relations. Most often this diplomacy happens as part of scientific cooperation as a means of building relationships between states and within international organizations. Science diplomacy is a process by which states, international organizations and non-state actors represent themselves and their interests. It is a global phenomenon. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Contents

Science diplomacy includes a number of formal or informal research-based, academic or engineering exchanges. It typically involves interactions between scientists and officials involved in diplomacy. [6] [7] Science diplomacy aims to address common problems. However, especially in times of international conflict, it is sometimes unclear if and how the actual policies and associated organizations can meet the expectations placed on science diplomacy. [8]

Definitions

The concept of science diplomacy is of relatively recent origin: Attempts to define and classify practices as science diplomacy date from the beginning of the 21st century. [9] [10] [11] Before the concept became popular, which happened in the West notably during the Obama administration, science diplomacy initiatives were often called "smart power" or "soft power". [12] Along with e.g. economic, cultural, digital, data or para-diplomacy, science diplomacy can be understood as a subcategory of the so-called new diplomacy, as opposed to the traditional diplomacy known to date. [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

Today, historians use the term science diplomacy retrospectively as an analytical category to examine past forms and earlier developments, [18] while the debate on contemporary science diplomacy initiatives is attended by scholars who treat it as an empirical object and actors who are or have been involved in science diplomacy practices. These are often career diplomats, science counsellors/advisers, or experts to national and international decision-making bodies and to politicians. Whether scientist diplomats or diplomat scientists are more effective is an open question. [19] Science diplomacy was and is an area of work in which multiple actors present diverse interests and interpretations.

Thus, there exists neither a clear-cut definition nor a consensus on science diplomacy's stakeholders, instruments and activities. The definition of science diplomacy draws its meaning from a compilation of different narratives, approaches and ideas of changing and sometimes contested relations between science and foreign policy and the evolution of diplomacy and international relations per se. [20] [21] [22] [23] In 2010, the Royal Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) have coined a widely used theoretical framework that describes three main types of activities: [24]

However, focus on these three types of activities can lead to an under-representation of the use of science for competitive purposes or even to a mystification of science as a complexity-reducing enterprise. [25] [26] [27] The theoretical framework of science diplomacy is under scrutiny: Most critics have emphasized the significant vulnerability of science as a public good. [28]

Recent scholarship points out that the Global South is still underrepresented in many aspects of the science diplomacy discourse. [29] [30] [31] Similarly, what has been noted for traditional diplomacy is probably also true for science diplomacy: we still have limited knowledge of female networks, gendered conditions, and practices of exclusion and inclusion in male-dominated contexts. [32] [33] [34]

History

Cross-border scientific negotiations on the environment, global health crises, or scientific intelligence gathering are not recent concerns. International affairs and scientific exchange have a long history together. Even if not called "science diplomacy" at the time: early forms were evident in the great voyages of exploration and especially colonization brought with it science-based diplomacy and influence. [35]

An early and widespread practice of science diplomacy is advisory work to governments. In Australia, this process was formalised on the recommendation of Sir Frank Heath to the Australian Government in 1926. Heath was the Secretary of the UK Department of Scientific Industry. He recommended that the Government establish the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research with the function to carry out research to support Australian primary and secondary industry but with the additional function "to act as a means of liaison between the Commonwealth and other countries in matters of scientific research". The Australian Government agreed with all recommendations and appointed Frank Lidgett McDougall its Scientific Liaison Officer in London in 1927 to deal with questions of scientific progress and policy. [36]

Notable developments in science diplomacy also arose as the result of scientific conferences and featured the creation of international organizations. In the 19th century, the increasing specialization of disciplines prompted experts to achieve more coordination. Hence they held international meetings to discuss the standardization of scientific methods, practices, nomenclature or units. The International Association of Academies (IAA) was created in 1899 as a result of such efforts. At that time, European scientists played formal or informal diplomatic roles by using their networks to gain competitive advantage in discussions on the colonization of distant territories, e.g., during the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. [37] By the end of World War I, the academies of the Entente Powers reorganized the IAA to deliberately exclude their colleagues from the Triple Alliance, especially German scientists, who had massively supported military actions, including by signing the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three. The IAA's successor, the International Research Council (IRC), was formed in 1919 and succeeded in keeping German scientists at margin. There were attempts to restablish contacts, particularly through transforming the IRC into the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in 1931. [38] However, the onset of World War II compromised cooperation in the Global North. Durable links were only re-established when the war was over. [39]

American stamp of 1955 in allusion to the program Atoms for Peace Atoms for Peace stamp.jpg
American stamp of 1955 in allusion to the program Atoms for Peace

The first major post-World War II science-based diplomatic initiative was the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission to stop an atomic arms race. [40] The initiative failed, the Cold War begun, and in the 1950s the United States developed a separate program, the Atoms for Peace initiative, made famous by a conference held at the UN office at Geneva in 1955. [41] Most importantly, the Atoms for Peace initiative provided the basis for the founding of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957. The IAEA engaged quickly in the promotion of science diplomacy initiatives. [42] The IAEA's function since then has been to encourage cooperation while providing safeguards of nuclear technologies. [43] However, the United States was far from being the only state pursuing diplomatic initiatives related to either nuclear weapons or the peaceful use of nuclear energy. For example, Atoms for Peace and the 1954 Castle Bravo thermonuclear weapons test contributed to Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs intensifying its diplomatic activities on nuclear issues as part of a wider range of science-related activities, including initiating a science attaché program in 1954 and creating a dedicated Science Division in 1958. [44]

The Cold War involved the development of strategic scientific relations as a way to promote cooperation to the extent that it could hedge against diplomatic failures and reduce the potential for conflict, with hegemonic interests informing science diplomacy practices. [45] Collaborations linked the two Cold War blocs when official diplomatic connections were stalled. However, scientific exchange also offered an opportunity for intelligence gathering, including by the United States in Western Europe. [46] Cold War science diplomacy was often to mediate the circulation of knowledge and materials, but also to create or rebuild exchange: In 1961, John F. Kennedy established a science and technology cooperation agreement with Japan following appeals to repair the "broken dialogue" between the two countries' intellectual communities after World War II. That agreement helped round out a tenuous relationship at the time rooted only in security concerns. [47] Yet, even in the immediate post-World War II period, there were examples of US-Japan exchange, such as in the co-production and cooperation between Japanese scientists and American science administrators in the founding of the Science Council of Japan. [48]

The emergence of two Cold War power blocs also saw the deployment of science and technology as a means of peacefully influencing other countries in areas such as space exploration, geography, or the development of fission reactors. Technical assistance programs flourished for the so-called "Third World", economically developing countries, and potential allies. [49] [50] [51] For instance, the Sino-Hungarian cooperation in geophysics evolved against the backdrop of the radicalization of Chinese politics and growing tensions between the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China after 1956. [52]

Developing countries also engaged in science diplomacy as part of cross-bloc competition, such as the People’s Republic of China using everything from the development of new flood control techniques in the 1950s to the launch of its first artificial satellite in 1970 as part of its “people’s diplomacy” strategies. Such science-related outreach was an important part of China’s foreign relations during the decades before its entry into the United Nations in 1971 and accompanying rapid expansion in its normalized diplomatic relations with other countries. [53] Henry Kissinger requested, and took, several science initiatives to his talks with China. Scientists featured prominently in the early exchanges and initiatives that were a part of the Sino-American rapprochement process leading to normalization of relations in 1979. Exchanges related to science and technology were explicitly mentioned in the Shanghai Communiqué. [54] [55] [56] The increasing participation of recently independent, de-colonizing countries in international technoscientific affairs illustrate fundamental but yet underexplored transitions in international affairs during and since the 1970s. [5]

Science diplomacy and international organizations

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNESCO logo English.svg
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Science diplomacy involves the promotion of a state's interests and/or it is taken to involve the meeting of global challenges and needs. Science as a tool for diplomacy has been and is used by many governments around the world. [57] [58] However, international organizations are also relevant promoters and actors of science diplomacy. It can therefore be seen as a form of networked and transnational governance, [59] [60] including via the United Nations system, especially via bodies such as UNESCO. [61] Through partnerships with international science unions and national science members, the International Science Council (ISC) (a merger of the ICSU with the International Social Science Council (ISSC) in 2018) focuses resources and tools towards the development of scientific solutions to the world's challenges.

In Continental Europe, two international organizations with a scientific mission are widely considered as models for science diplomacy: At the end of World War II, Europe had to rebuild itself politically, economically, and in terms of scientific exchange. In this context, 12 countries joined to create the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in 1954, now hosted in Switzerland. [62] At present, CERN is run by 23 member states, but many non-members are also involved in different ways. [63] The second example is the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), an engineering megaproject in France, which will be the world's largest magnetic confinement experiment when it begins plasma physics operations. [64] ITER began in 1985 as a Reagan–Gorbachev initiative with the equal participation of the Soviet Union, the European Atomic Energy Community, the United States, and Japan, with the post-9/11 era posing a challenge on its continuation. [65]

In the Middle East, a relevant example of science diplomacy put in practice is the Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME). In the late 1990s, several countries joined to establish SESAME with the intention to foster scientific cooperation in a region of the world that has been torn by persistent conflicts. [66] In 2019, the early promoters of SESAME received the Award for Science Diplomacy by the AAAS. [67]

In some cases, science diplomacy is not the obvious preliminary goal of an international body but used as an important tool: for example, the European Union fosters science collaboration as a way to make diplomacy through "parallel means". [68] Several EU-funded projects are currently exploring and conducting research on the topic of science diplomacy. Another example is the intergovernmental military alliance of NATO, which in 1958 established a Science Committee and the position of a Science Advisor. [69] NATO officials sought to use the promotion of science as a diplomatic channel (or "backchannel"), especially in critical moments of the alliance’s history. [70]

Science diplomacy and non-state actors

Non-state actors also practice science diplomacy. The World Federation of Scientific Workers (a NGO in official partnership with UNESCO), founded in 1946, provides a relevant forum for international exchange. Its agenda included issues such as the social responsibility of scientists and disarmament. [71] Another example of science diplomacy carried out by non-state actors dates back to 1957, when the philanthropist Cyrus Eaton hosted a meeting in Pugwash, Canada. [72] The stimulus for the gathering was a Manifesto issued by Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein which called upon scientists of all political persuasions to assemble to discuss the threat posed to civilization by the advent of new thermonuclear weapons. [73] Scientists continued to meet at what became known as the Pugwash Conferences. These gatherings eventually grew and attracted the attention of high level government officials. In 1958 "Pugwash" sought to influence policies of the IAEA and thus the formation of the international nuclear order. [74] Since then, Pugwash committees were formed in the East and the West. [75]

Such informal, non-governmental initiatives illustrate Track II science diplomacy, which is based on the informal transnational exchange of information without an official national negotiating mandate. [76] Track II consists of informal dialogues among actors that can bring new ideas or relationships to the official process of diplomacy. Public pressure groups or individuals can have an impact on governmental decisions: For example, the work of Norman Cousins, editor of The Saturday Review of Literature, helped move the 1963 Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty forward. [77] A specific form of Track II science diplomacy is activism and advocacy "from below" the elitist sphere of government advice. Such grassroots initiatives, e.g, Science for the People, were evident during the Vietnam War, when many Western academics protested against the misuse of science for warfare, campaigning for principles of global social justice. [78] Scientists and physicians were also acting beyond state regulation and outside of official diplomatic arenas by researching and exposing the extent of harm done to the Vietnamese people in the war zones. [79]

Similar to the initiative of non-state actors, non-profit organizations can exercise science diplomacy practices. For example, the Malta Conferences Foundation seeks to provide a bridge to peace in the Middle East through science diplomacy. [80] A relevant African science diplomacy actor is the African Scientific Institute, created in 1967 to help scientists reach others through published materials, conferences, seminars and to provide tools for those who lack them. [81] A similar initiative has been launched by CRDF Global in partnership with the U.S. Department of State, the Global Innovation through Science and Technology (GIST). [82] CRDF Global has been active in the United States and in the Middle East on promoting science diplomacy through conferences, panel discussions and programs including the Iraqi Virtual Science Library, Maghreb Virtual Science Library, and the Afghanistan Virtual Science Library. Another examples is the Center for Science Diplomacy, established by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). [83] It provides a forum for scientists, policy analysts, and policy-makers to share information and explore collaborative opportunities. In March 2012, the center launched the quarterly publication Science & Diplomacy . [84] Others non-profit organizations, such as the Science and Development Network (SciDev.Net) have dedicated an entire portion of their website for science diplomacy related articles and events.

Science diplomacy applied to health and pandemics

The mission of the World Health Organization (WHO) is a thoroughly science diplomacy act. [85] Together with other organizations, and including researchers, public health officials, countries, government officials, and clinicians, the WHO has worked together to create effective measures of infection control and subsequent treatment. International organizations and non-state actors share resources, research data, ideas, and put into effect laws and regulations that can further advance scientific research. Without the collaborative efforts of such entities, the world would not have the vaccines and treatments we now possess for diseases that were once considered deadly such as tuberculosis, tetanus, polio, influenza, etc. Historically, science diplomacy has proved successful in diseases such as SARS, Ebola, Zika and continued to be relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic. [86] Misinformation about the origin of viruses is inherently political and has a long history in the global threat landscape. This is well documented for HIV. [87]

During epidemics and pandemics, vaccines and drugs are an effective method for reducing incidence and mortality. Economically underdeveloped countries often face obstacles that hinder timely development and deployment of vaccines during times of crises, including structural barriers (which make transport more difficult) and monetary barriers. As a result, the collaboration with international institutions are important to develop and distribute treatments that can mitigate the effects of the outbreak. In the past, institutions including large pharmaceutical corporations have donated vaccine doses to underdeveloped countries, and charitable organizations have funded trials to test the efficacy of the vaccine. [88] [89] These collaborations are exemplified in various nations’ responses to the malaria, rotavirus, HIV/Aids, HPV, and COVID-19 outbreaks. [90]

Science diplomacy applied to space, oceans, and the polar regions

Science diplomacy not only concerns the inhabited and civilized land, but is also a means of expressing interests in relation to space, the oceans and the polar regions. In the 1950s, the Eisenhower Administration favoured the thesis that increased international collaboration would strengthen the Free World, placing relevance on Oceanic Science. [91] Another case in point is the race to the Moon, especially following the Sputnik shock, which in turn led to the founding of NASA. [92] With the rise of privatized space exploration and the growing competition with nations across the globe in the new age space race, space diplomacy refers to a globalized effort by scientists, national officials, and private corporations to reach a consensus on what is safe, effective, and sustainable space travel. In addition to possible space jurisdictions to each country interested in space travel, science diplomacy and space, or space diplomacy, can involve considerations towards environmental pollution or a set of international laws and legislations, such as the Outer Space Treaty.

The usefulness of coordinating polar science efforts was already recognized in 1879. [93] In 1996, countries with interests in the Arctic came together to form the Arctic Council to discuss sustainable development and environmental protection. [94] [95]

Science diplomacy in the 21st century

Many of the global challenges related to health, economic growth, and climate change lay at the intersection of science and international relations. [96] There are numerous patterns via which scientific and technological advances influence international relations, including as a juggernaut or escaped genie with rapid and wide-ranging ramifications for the international system; as a game-changer and a conveyor of advantage and disadvantage to different actors in the international system; as a source of risks, issues and problems that must be addressed and managed by the international community; as key dimensions or enablers of international macro phenomena; as instruments of foreign policy or sources of technical information for the management of an ongoing international regime; as the subject of projects and institutions whose planning, design, implementation and management provide grist for the mill of international relations and diplomacy. [97]

There is a long list of specific themes for science diplomacy to address, including “the rising risks and dangers of climate change, a spread of infectious diseases, increasing energy costs, migration movements, and cultural clashes”. [58] Other areas of interest include space exploration; [98] the exploration of fundamental physics (e.g., CERN [99] and ITER [100] ); the management of the polar regions; [2] [101] health research; [102] the oil and mining sectors; [103] fisheries; [104] and international security, [105] including global cybersecurity, [106] as well as enormous geographic areas, such as the transatlantic [59] and Indo-Pacific regions. [107] Increasingly, science diplomacy has come to be seen as a multilateral endeavor to address both global challenges and the matter of global goods, via science internationals (such as the Malta Conferences [108] ); international NGOs, especially UN bodies; and various science-policy interfaces, [2] such as the U.S. National Academies system.

Science diplomacy suggests a means for helping manage paradigmatic and disruptive change. For instance, the sheer scale of the problem of climate change has caused researchers to call for the reinvention of science communication in order to address humanity's cognitive limits in coping with such a crisis, [109] with the International Panel on Climate Change alone constituting a science-diplomacy nexus. [2] Especially within the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, the first calls to begin seeing science and its products as global public goods which should be tasked to fundamentally improve the human condition, especially in countries which are facing catastrophic change, are being made. [110] While both science and technology create new risks in and of themselves, they can also alert humanity of risks, such as global warming, in both cases transforming commerce, diplomacy, intelligence, investment, and war. [97] Science diplomacy challenges the way international relations operates as a field of human endeavor, presenting a ‘boundary problem’ involving actors from different social worlds. [111]

In 2009, President Barack Obama called for partnership during his “A New Beginning” speech in Cairo, Egypt. [112] These partnerships would include a greater focus on engagement of the Muslim world through science, technology, and innovation connecting scientists from the United States to scientists in Muslim-majority countries. [113] Other strategies that evolved at that time involved the development of scientific relations between historical or potential rival countries or blocs as a way to promote scientific cooperation to the extent that it could hedge against diplomatic failures and reduce the potential for conflict. [11] [114] [115] [116] On March 12, 2010, Congressman Howard Berman (D-CA) and Congressman Jeff Fortenberry (R-NE) introduced the Global Science Program for Security, Competitiveness, and Diplomacy Act, [117] which proposed an increase in the application of science and scientific engagement in US foreign policy.

In December 2018, the “Madrid Declaration on Science Diplomacy” was signed by a group of high-level experts. It proclaims a common vision of science diplomacy in the future, emphasises the benefits science diplomacy can bring to tackling the global challenges of our time and outlines the principles needed to foster science diplomacy worldwide. [118]

Whereas science diplomacy is frequently considered a soft power tool which helps to keep dialogue lines open between states in conflict and can contribute to peacekeeping and international understanding, in times of war, science diplomacy seems to fall within the arsenal of hard power: this became most evident in the Russian invasion of Ukraine. [119] [120] Sanctions are an important part of the arsenal of science diplomacy aimed at intervening in conflicts: CERN, for example, has announced the termination of its exchange programs with Russia and Belarus in 2024. [121]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International relations</span> Study of relationships between two or more states

International relations is an academic discipline. In a broader sense, the study of IR, in addition to multilateral relations, concerns all activities among states—such as war, diplomacy, trade, and foreign policy—as well as relations with and among other international actors, such as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), international legal bodies, and multinational corporations (MNCs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geopolitics</span> Study of geographys effects on politics

Geopolitics is the study of the effects of Earth's geography on politics and international relations. Geopolitics usually refers to countries and relations between them, it may also focus on two other kinds of states: de facto independent states with limited international recognition and relations between sub-national geopolitical entities, such as the federated states that make up a federation, confederation, or a quasi-federal system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign policy</span> Governments strategy in relating with other nations

Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, including defense and security, economic benefits, and humanitarian assistance. The formulation of foreign policy is influenced by various factors such as domestic considerations, the behavior of other states, and geopolitical strategies. Historically, the practice of foreign policy has evolved from managing short-term crises to addressing long-term international relations, with diplomatic corps playing a crucial role in its development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs</span> International organization

The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs is an international organization that brings together scholars and public figures to work toward reducing the danger of armed conflict and to seek solutions to global security threats. It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Middle power</span> Type of state

A middle power is a state that is not a superpower or a great power, but still exerts influence and plays a significant role in international relations. These countries often possess certain capabilities, such as strong economies, advanced technologies, and diplomatic influence, that allow them to have a voice in global affairs. Middle powers are typically seen as bridge-builders between larger powers, using their diplomatic skills to mediate conflicts and promote cooperation on international issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Jervis</span> American political scientist and academic (1940–2021)

Robert Jervis was an American political scientist who was the Adlai E. Stevenson Professor of International Politics in the Department of Political Science at Columbia University. Jervis was co-editor of the Cornell Studies in Security Affairs, a series published by Cornell University Press.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis</span> International research organization in Austria

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) is an independent International research institute located in Laxenburg, near Vienna in Austria, founded as an East-West scientific cooperation initiative during the Cold War. Through its research programs and initiatives, the institute conducts policy-oriented interdisciplinary research into issues too large or complex to be solved by a single country or academic discipline. These include climate change, energy security, population aging, and sustainable development. The results of IIASA research and the expertise of its researchers are made available to policymakers worldwide to help them make informed and evidence-based policies.

A science attaché is a member of a diplomatic mission, usually an embassy. A science attaché traditionally had three primary functions: advise the ambassador on scientific and technical matters, report on scientific and technological events, and represent their country in scientific and technical matters to foreign scientific and technical academies; to industry; to intergovernmental organizations and agencies; and to international non-governmental organizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital diplomacy</span>

Digital diplomacy, also referred to as Digiplomacy and eDiplomacy, has been defined as the use of the Internet and new information communication technologies to help achieve diplomatic objectives. However, other definitions have also been proposed. The definition focuses on the interplay between internet and diplomacy, ranging from Internet driven-changes in the environment in which diplomacy is conducted to the emergence of new topics on diplomatic agendas such as cybersecurity, privacy and more, along with the use of internet tools to practice diplomacy.

Alexander L. George was an American behavioral scientist. He was the Graham H. Stuart Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Stanford University. He made influential contributions to political psychology, international relations, and social science methodology.

Walter Mattli is a supernumerary fellow at St. John's College of the University of Oxford, England. He served as fellow in politics at St. John's College and professor of international political economy in the Department of Politics and International Relations at Oxford. Mattli was a senior member of the Oxford International Relations Society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global catastrophic risk</span> Hypothetical global-scale disaster risk

A global catastrophic risk or a doomsday scenario is a hypothetical event that could damage human well-being on a global scale, even endangering or destroying modern civilization. An event that could cause human extinction or permanently and drastically curtail humanity's existence or potential is known as an "existential risk".

<i>Global Policy</i> Academic journal

Global Policy is a prestigious peer-reviewed academic journal based at the Global Policy Institute, School of Government and International Affairs, Durham University and focusing on the "point where ideas and policy meet", published in association with Wiley-Blackwell.

<i>Science & Diplomacy</i>

Science & Diplomacy is a quarterly magazine published by the Center for Science Diplomacy of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). The publication includes articles, short comments (perspectives), and letters on issues in the field of science diplomacy, diplomacy about scientific issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community of Common Destiny</span> Chinese Communist Party policy

Community of common destiny for mankind, officially translated as community with a shared future for mankind or human community with a shared future, is a political slogan used by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to describe a stated foreign-policy goal of the People's Republic of China. The phrase was first used by former CCP General Secretary Hu Jintao and has been frequently cited by current General Secretary Xi Jinping. As the term's usage in English has increased, "shared future" has become more frequently used than "common destiny," as the latter arguably implies a predetermined path. The phrase was included in the CCP Constitution in 1997, and the preamble of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China when the Constitution was amended in 2018.

The People's Republic of China emerged as a great power and one of the three big players in the tri-polar geopolitics (PRC-US-USSR) during the Cold War, after the Korean War in 1950-1953 and the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, with its status as a recognized nuclear weapons state in 1960s. Currently, China has one of the world's largest populations, second largest GDP (nominal) and the largest economy in the world by PPP.

In political science, triangular diplomacy is a foreign policy of the United States, developed during the Vietnam War (1955–1975) by Henry Kissinger, as a means to manage relations between the contesting communist powers, the Soviet Union and China. Connecting heavily with the correlating policy of linkage, the policy was intended to exploit the ongoing rivalry between the two Communist powers, as a means to strengthen American hegemony and diplomatic interest.

In international relations, migration diplomacy is 'the use of diplomatic tools, processes, and procedures to manage cross-border population mobility,' including 'both the strategic use of migration flows as a means to obtain other aims, and the use of diplomatic methods to achieve goals related to migration.' Migration has come to constitute an increasingly-important area of states' engagement with one another, with bilateral multilateral strategies including the promotion or discouragement of bilateral migratory flows; agreements on preferential treatment to certain foreign nationals; the initiation of guest-worker programmes or other short-term labor migration schemes; the deportation of foreign nationals; and so on.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams</span> Engineering societies based in the United States

The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is a global forum of incident response and security teams. They aim to improve cooperation between security teams on handling major cybersecurity incidents. FIRST is an association of incident response teams with global coverage.

Data diplomacy can be defined in two different ways: use of data as a means and tool to conduct national diplomacy, or the use of diplomatic actions and skills of various stakeholders to enable and facilitate data access, understanding, and use. Data can help and influence many aspects of the diplomatic process, such as information gathering, negotiations, consular services, humanitarian response and foreign policy development. The second kind of data diplomacy challenges traditional models of diplomacy and can be conducted without tracks and diplomats. Drivers of change in diplomacy are also emerging from industry, academia and directly from the public.

References

  1. ↑ Turekian, Vaughan C.; Macindoe, Sarah; Copeland, Daryl; Davis, Lloyd S.; Patman, Robert G.; Pozza, Maria (2015), "The Emergence of Science Diplomacy", Science Diplomacy, World Scientific, pp. 3–24, doi:10.1142/9789814440073_0001, ISBN   978-981-4440-06-6 , retrieved May 17, 2024
  2. 1 2 3 4 Ruffini, Pierre-Bruno (May 7, 2017). Science and diplomacy : a new dimension of international relations. Cham, Switzerland. ISBN   978-3-319-55104-3. OCLC   986538820.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ↑ Turekian, Vaughan (2018). "The Evolution of Science Diplomacy". Global Policy. 9 (S3): 5–7. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12622 . ISSN   1758-5899.
  4. ↑ Krasnyak, Olga; Ruffini, Pierre-Bruno (February 26, 2020), Science Diplomacy, International Relations, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780199743292-0277, ISBN   978-0-19-974329-2
  5. 1 2 Robinson, Sam; Adamson, Matthew; Barrett, Gordon; Jacobsen, Lif Lund; Turchetti, Simone; Homei, Aya; Marton, Péter; Aronowsky, Leah; Choudry, Iqra; Gärdebo, Johan; Hyun, Jaehwan; Ienna, Gerardo; Kinyanjui, Carringtone; Martínez-Rius, Beatriz; Mascarello, Júlia (September 14, 2023). "The globalization of science diplomacy in the early 1970s: a historical exploration". Science and Public Policy. 50 (4): 749–758. doi:10.1093/scipol/scad026. hdl: 10278/5028481 . ISSN   0302-3427.
  6. ↑ Jacobsen, Lif Lund; Olšáková, Doubravka (2020). "Diplomats in Science Diplomacy: Promoting Scientific and Technological Collaboration in International Relations". Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte. 43 (4): 465–472. doi:10.1002/bewi.202080402. ISSN   0170-6233. PMID   33616964.
  7. ↑ Fähnrich, Birte (November 21, 2016). "Science diplomacy: Investigating the perspective of scholars on politics–science collaboration in international affairs". Public Understanding of Science. 26 (6): 688–703. doi:10.1177/0963662515616552. ISSN   0963-6625. PMID   26721551. S2CID   206607999.
  8. ↑ Flink, Tim (2022). "Taking the pulse of science diplomacy and developing practices of valuation". Science and Public Policy. pp. 191–200. doi:10.1093/scipol/scab074 . Retrieved May 20, 2024.
  9. ↑ Turekian, Vaughan (2018). "The Evolution of Science Diplomacy". Global Policy. 9 (S3): 5–7. doi:10.1111/1758-5899.12622. ISSN   1758-5880.
  10. ↑ "Global Science Diplomacy". Office of Science and Technology Policy – via National Archives.
  11. 1 2 Lord, Kristin M.; Turekian, Vaughan C. (February 9, 2007). "Time for a New Era of Science Diplomacy". Science. 315 (5813): 769–770. doi:10.1126/science.1139880. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   17289962. S2CID   26629514.
  12. ↑ Nye, Joseph S. (1992). Bound to lead: the changing nature of American power (5. [pr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-465-00744-8.
  13. ↑ "Science Diplomacy". obo. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  14. ↑ Barston, Ronald Peter (2013). Modern diplomacy (Fourth ed.). Abingdon, Oxon. ISBN   978-1-315-83289-0. OCLC   882250614.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ↑ Sharp, Paul (July 21, 2016), "Domestic Public Diplomacy, Domestic Diplomacy, and Domestic Foreign Policy", The Transformation of Foreign Policy, Oxford University Press, pp. 263–282, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198783862.003.0012, ISBN   978-0-19-878386-2
  16. ↑ Constantinou, Costas M.; Sharp, Paul (2016), "Theoretical Perspectives in Diplomacy", The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy, London: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 13–27, doi:10.4135/9781473957930.n2, ISBN   978-1-4462-9856-5
  17. ↑ Bjola, Corneliu (2018). Understanding International Diplomacy: Theory, Practice and Ethics. Routledge.
  18. ↑ Turchetti, Simone; Adamson, Matthew; Rispoli, Giulia; Olšáková, Doubravka; Robinson, Sam (September 23, 2020). "Introduction". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 50 (4): 323–339. doi:10.1525/hsns.2020.50.4.323. hdl: 21.11116/0000-0007-2005-F . ISSN   1939-1811.
  19. ↑ Moomaw, William R. (April 6, 2018). "Scientist Diplomats or Diplomat Scientists: Who Makes Science Diplomacy Effective?". Global Policy. 9: 78–80. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12520 . ISSN   1758-5880.
  20. ↑ Turekian, Vaughan C.; Macindoe, Sarah; Copeland, Daryl; Davis, Lloyd S.; Patman, Robert G.; Pozza, Maria (2015), "The Emergence of Science Diplomacy", Science Diplomacy, World Scientific, pp. 3–24, doi:10.1142/9789814440073_0001, ISBN   978-981-4440-06-6 , retrieved May 20, 2024
  21. ↑ Gluckman, Peter D. Enhancing evidence-informed policy making. OCLC   1022216473.
  22. ↑ "S4D4C | Using science for/in diplomacy for addressing global challenges". www.rri-tools.eu. Retrieved August 17, 2020.
  23. ↑ Szkarłat, Monika (August 5, 2020). "Science diplomacy of Poland". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 7 (1): 1–10. doi: 10.1057/s41599-020-00555-2 . ISSN   2662-9992. S2CID   220966808.
  24. ↑ "New Frontiers in Science Diplomacy" (PDF). January 2010.
  25. ↑ Ruffini, Pierre-Bruno (October 14, 2020). "Conceptualizing science diplomacy in the practitioner-driven literature: a critical review". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 7 (1): 1–9. doi: 10.1057/s41599-020-00609-5 . ISSN   2662-9992.
  26. ↑ Rungius, Charlotte; Flink, Tim (September 23, 2020). "Romancing science for global solutions: on narratives and interpretative schemas of science diplomacy". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 7 (1): 1–10. doi: 10.1057/s41599-020-00585-w . ISSN   2662-9992.
  27. ↑ Flink, Tim (August 5, 2020). "The Sensationalist Discourse of Science Diplomacy: A Critical Reflection". The Hague Journal of Diplomacy. 15 (3): 359–370. doi: 10.1163/1871191X-BJA10032 . ISSN   1871-1901.
  28. ↑ Olšáková, Doubravka (December 14, 2023). "A Review of Science Diplomacy: Theoretical Evolution to a Post-Naïve Approach and Its Relevance for the Czech Republic". Czech Journal of International Relations. doi: 10.32422/cjir.430 . ISSN   2788-2993.
  29. ↑ Adamson, Matthew; Lalli, Roberto (2021). "Global perspectives on science diplomacy: Exploring the diplomacy-knowledge nexus in contemporary histories of science". Centaurus. 63 (1): 1–16. doi: 10.1111/1600-0498.12369 . hdl: 21.11116/0000-0008-25D5-E .
  30. ↑ Polejack, Andrei; Goveas, Jenice; Robinson, Sam; Flink, Tim; Ferreira, Gabriela (2022). "Where is the Global South in the Science Diplomacy Narrative?". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.4278557. ISSN   1556-5068.
  31. ↑ Anna-Lena Rüland, Nicolas Rüffin, Katharina Cramer, Prosper Ngabonziza, Manoj Saxena, Stefan Skupien (August 2023). "Science diplomacy from the Global South: the case of intergovernmental science organizations". Science and Public Policy. doi:10.1093/scipol/scad024 . Retrieved July 11, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ↑ Rentetzi, Maria; Kohlstedt, Sally G. (2009). "Introduction: Gender and Networking in Twentieth-century Physical Sciences". Centaurus. 51 (1): 5–11. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.2008.00133.x.
  33. ↑ Niklasson, Birgitta (March 19, 2020). "The Gendered Networking of Diplomats". The Hague Journal of Diplomacy. 15 (1–2): 13–42. doi:10.1163/1871191X-BJA10005. ISSN   1871-1901.
  34. ↑ Aggestam, Karin; Towns, Ann (2019). "The gender turn in diplomacy: a new research agenda". International Feminist Journal of Politics. 21 (1): 9–28. doi:10.1080/14616742.2018.1483206. ISSN   1461-6742.
  35. ↑ Gamito-Marques, Daniel (2020). "Science for Competition among Powers: Geographical Knowledge, Colonial-Diplomatic Networks, and the Scramble for Africa**". Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte. 43 (4): 473–492. doi:10.1002/bewi.202000016. ISSN   0170-6233. PMID   33245154.
  36. ↑ Stirling, Alfred, "Frank Lidgett McDougall (1884–1958)", Australian Dictionary of Biography, Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, retrieved May 16, 2024
  37. ↑ Bartholomew, James R. (2003). "Internationalism and nationalism". In Heilbron, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 41.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  38. ↑ Greenaway, Frank (1997). Science International: A History of the International Council of Scientific Unions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  39. ↑ Daston, Lorraine (2023). Rivals: How Scientists Learned to Cooperate. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN   9798987053560.
  40. ↑ Kearn, David W. (March 12, 2010). "The Baruch Plan and the Quest for Atomic Disarmament". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 21 (1): 41–67. doi:10.1080/09592290903577742. ISSN   0959-2296. S2CID   154515687.
  41. ↑ Hewlett, Richard G.; Holl, Jack M. (1989). Atoms for Peace and War, 1953-1961: Eisenhower and the atomic energy commission. University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-36898-9. OCLC   1155606514.
  42. ↑ Adamson, Matthew (2023). "Showcasing the international atom: the IAEA Bulletin as a visual science diplomacy instrument, 1958–1962". The British Journal for the History of Science. 56 (2): 205–223. doi:10.1017/S0007087423000055. ISSN   0007-0874. PMID   37039487.
  43. ↑ Röhrlich, Elisabeth (2022). Inspectors for Peace. A History of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  44. ↑ Hyun, Jaehwan; Song, Sungsoo; Iida, Kaori (2024). "Historicizing Science and Technology Diplomacy in Japan and South Korea". 과학기술학연구 (in Korean). 24 (1): 35–64. ISSN   1738-9291.
  45. ↑ Turchetti, Simone (September 23, 2020). "The (Science Diplomacy) Origins of the Cold War". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 50 (4): 411–432. doi:10.1525/hsns.2020.50.4.411. ISSN   1939-1811.
  46. ↑ Wolfe, Audra J. (January 28, 2020). "Spying in Plain Sight: Scientific Diplomacy during the Cold War". Science History Institute. Retrieved May 20, 2024.
  47. ↑ "Re-defining the Japan-US Relationship" (PDF). US-Japan Conference on Cultural and Educational Interchange (CULCON). June 12, 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved July 16, 2012.
  48. ↑ Ito, Kenji (February 27, 2023). "Transnational scientific advising: occupied Japan, the United States National Academy of Sciences and the establishment of the Science Council of Japan". The British Journal for the History of Science: 1–15. doi:10.1017/S0007087423000031. ISSN   0007-0874. PMID   36843497.
  49. ↑ Zhang, Li; Zhu, Yanmei (2021). "Technical assistance versus cultural export: George Cressey and the U.S. Cultural Relations Program in wartime China, 1942–1946". Centaurus. 63 (1): 32–50. doi:10.1111/1600-0498.12355. ISSN   0008-8994.
  50. ↑ Adamson, Matthew; Turchetti, Simone (2021). "Friends in fission: US–Brazil relations and the global stresses of atomic energy, 1945–1955". Centaurus. 63 (1): 51–66. doi:10.1111/1600-0498.12336. ISSN   0008-8994.
  51. ↑ Mateos, Gisela; Suárez-Díaz, Edna (2021). "Atomic ambassadors: the IAEA's first Preliminary Assistance Mission (1958)". History and Technology. 37 (1): 90–105. doi:10.1080/07341512.2021.1905354. ISSN   0734-1512.
  52. ↑ Vámos, Péter (September 2, 2022). "Friendly Assistance and Self-Reliance". Journal of Cold War Studies. 24 (3): 116–150. doi:10.1162/jcws_a_01075. ISSN   1520-3972.
  53. ↑ Barrett, Gordon (2022). China's Cold War Science Diplomacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108951746. ISBN   978-1-108-84457-4.
  54. ↑ Millwood, Pete (2021). "An 'Exceedingly Delicate Undertaking': Sino-American Science Diplomacy, 1966–78". Journal of Contemporary History. 56 (1): 166–190. doi:10.1177/0022009419888273. ISSN   0022-0094.
  55. ↑ Wang, Zuoyue (1999). "U.S.-China Scientific Exchange: A Case Study of State-Sponsored Scientific Internationalism during the Cold War and Beyond". Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences. 30 (1): 249–277. doi:10.2307/27757826. ISSN   0890-9997. JSTOR   27757826.
  56. ↑ Smith, Kathlin (1998). "The Role of Scientists in Normalizing U.S.-China Relations: 1965–1979". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 866 (1): 114–136. Bibcode:1998NYASA.866..114S. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09149.x. ISSN   0077-8923. PMID   12088002.
  57. ↑ Turekian, Vaughan C.; Neureiter, Norman P. (March 9, 2012). "Science and Diplomacy: The Past as Prologue". Science & Diplomacy.
  58. 1 2 Flink, Tim; Schreiterer, Ulrich (November 1, 2010). "Science diplomacy at the intersection of S&T policies and foreign affairs: toward a typology of national approaches". Science and Public Policy. 37 (9): 665–677. doi:10.3152/030234210x12778118264530. ISSN   0302-3427.
  59. 1 2 Paar-Jakli, Gabriella. (2014). Networked governance and transatlantic relations : building bridges through science diplomacy. Routledge. ISBN   978-0-203-74459-8. OCLC   1086455322.
  60. ↑ Legrand, Timothy; Stone, Diane (March 7, 2018). "Science diplomacy and transnational governance impact" (PDF). British Politics. 13 (3): 392–408. doi:10.1057/s41293-018-0082-z. ISSN   1746-918X. PMC   7149144 . PMID   38624287. S2CID   158157198.
  61. ↑ Singh, J. P. (2018). "UNESCO: Scientific Humanism and its Impact on Multilateral Diplomacy". Global Policy. 9: 53–59. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12624 . ISSN   1758-5880.
  62. ↑ Pestre, Dominique (1984). "Studies in CERN History. Prehistory of CERN: the first suggestions (1949-June 1950)" (PDF).
  63. ↑ "A global endeavour". CERN - the European Organization for Nuclear Research. July 21, 2023.
  64. ↑ Todd K. Harding; Melanie J. Khanna; Raymond L. Orbach (2012). "International Fusion Energy Cooperation: ITER as a Case Study in Science and Diplomacy".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ↑ McCray, W. Patrick (2010). "'Globalization with hardware': ITER's fusion of technology, policy, and politics". History and Technology. 26 (4): 283–312. doi:10.1080/07341512.2010.523171. ISSN   0734-1512.
  66. ↑ Rungius, Charlotte; Flink, Tim; Riedel, Sebastian (February 4, 2022). "SESAME – a synchrotron light source in the Middle East: an international research infrastructure in the making". Open Research Europe. 1: 51. doi: 10.12688/openreseurope.13362.2 . ISSN   2732-5121. PMC   10445914 . PMID   37645168.
  67. ↑ "Architects of Cooperative Middle Eastern Research Center Receive 2019 AAAS Award for Science Diplomacy | American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)". www.aaas.org. Retrieved July 14, 2024.
  68. ↑ "Science Diplomacy". EEAS - European External Action Service - European Commission. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
  69. ↑ Turchetti, Simone (2018). "Diplomacy by other means? NATO's science sixty years on…". NATO Review. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  70. ↑ Turchetti, Simone (2021). "Trading Global Catastrophes: NATO's Science Diplomacy and Nuclear Winter". Journal of Contemporary History. 56 (3): 543–562. doi:10.1177/0022009421993915. ISSN   0022-0094.
  71. ↑ Olšáková, Doubravka; Barrett, Gordon (2024), Marton, Péter; Thomasen, Gry; Békés, Csaba; Rácz, András (eds.), "World Federation of Scientific Workers", The Palgrave Handbook of Non-State Actors in East-West Relations, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05750-2_41-1, ISBN   978-3-031-05750-2 , retrieved August 25, 2024
  72. ↑ Zaidi, Waqar H. (2023). "The Pugwash scientists' conferences, Cyrus Eaton and the clash of internationalisms, 1954–1961". The British Journal for the History of Science. 56 (4): 503–517. doi: 10.1017/S0007087423000377 . ISSN   0007-0874.
  73. ↑ Einstein, Albert; Russell, Bertrand (1955). "The Russell-Einstein Manifesto". Archived from the original on March 1, 2020. Retrieved August 17, 2020.
  74. ↑ Röhrlich, Elisabeth (April 2018). "An Attitude of Caution: The IAEA, the UN, and the 1958 Pugwash Conference in Austria". Journal of Cold War Studies. 20 (1): 31–57. doi:10.1162/jcws_a_00800. ISSN   1520-3972.
  75. ↑ Olšáková, Doubravka (2018). "Pugwash in Eastern Europe: The Limits of International Cooperation Under Soviet Control in the 1950s and 1960s". Journal of Cold War Studies. 20 (1): 210–240. doi:10.1162/jcws_a_00805. ISSN   1520-3972.
  76. ↑ Kraft, Alison (2022). From Dissent to Diplomacy: The Pugwash Project During the 1960s Cold War. SpringerBriefs in History of Science and Technology. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-12135-7. ISBN   978-3-031-12134-0.
  77. ↑ Pietrobon, Allen (2016). "The Role of Norman Cousins and Track II Diplomacy in the Breakthrough to the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty". Journal of Cold War Studies. 18 (1): 60–79. doi:10.1162/JCWS_a_00619. ISSN   1520-3972.
  78. ↑ Ienna, Gerardo; Turchetti, Simone (November 1, 2023). "JASON in Europe: Contestation and the Physicists' Dilemma about the Vietnam War". Physics in Perspective. 25 (3): 85–105. Bibcode:2023PhP....25...85I. doi: 10.1007/s00016-023-00302-5 . ISSN   1422-6960.
  79. ↑ Hof, Barbara (2023), Marton, Péter; Thomasen, Gry; Békés, Csaba; Rácz, András (eds.), "Science for Vietnam: Grassroots Activism in East-West Relations in the 1970s", The Palgrave Handbook of Non-State Actors in East-West Relations, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–9, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05750-2_54-1, ISBN   978-3-031-05750-2 , retrieved May 17, 2024
  80. ↑ Hoffman, Morton Z.; Lerman, Zafra M. (January 2015), "The Malta Conferences: Fostering International Scientific Collaborations Toward Peace in the Middle East", ACS Symposium Series, Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, pp. 81–95, doi:10.1021/bk-2015-1195.ch008, ISBN   978-0-8412-3067-5
  81. ↑ "About ASI". African Scientific Institute (ASI). Archived from the original on July 20, 2012. Retrieved July 17, 2012.
  82. ↑ "Global Innovation through Science and Technology (GIST)".
  83. ↑ "Center for Science Diplomacy".
  84. ↑ "AAAS's Center for Science Diplomacy launches new publication". AAAS Member Central. Retrieved March 13, 2012.
  85. ↑ Cueto, Marcos; Brown, Theodore M.; Fee, Elizabeth (2019). The World Health Organization: A History. Global Health Histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108692878. ISBN   978-1-108-48357-5.
  86. ↑ Vargha, Dora; Wilkins, Imogen (September 2, 2023). "Vaccination and Pandemics". Isis. 114 (S1): S50–S70. doi:10.1086/726980. ISSN   0021-1753.
  87. ↑ Selvage, Douglas (August 9, 2021). "Operation "Denver"". Journal of Cold War Studies. 23 (3): 4–80. doi:10.1162/jcws_a_01024. ISSN   1520-3972.
  88. ↑ The RTS,S Clinical Trials Partnership (November 17, 2011). "First Results of Phase 3 Trial of RTS,S/AS01 Malaria Vaccine in African Children". New England Journal of Medicine. 365 (20): 1863–1875. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1102287 . ISSN   0028-4793. PMID   22007715.
  89. ↑ "GSK welcomes WHO recommendation for broad roll-out of its RTS,S/AS01e (RTS,S) malaria vaccine | GSK". www.gsk.com. June 10, 2021. Retrieved May 11, 2023.
  90. ↑ "Water in the U.S. American West" (PDF). naturalresourcespolicy.org. March 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 16, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023.
  91. ↑ Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (December 1, 2000). "Visions of International Scientific Cooperation: The Case of Oceanic Science, 1920–1955". Minerva. 38 (4): 393–423. doi:10.1023/A:1004827125474. ISSN   1573-1871.
  92. ↑ Launius, Roger D. (2010). "An unintended consequence of the IGY: Eisenhower, Sputnik, the Founding of NASA". Acta Astronautica. 67 (1–2): 254–263. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2009.10.019. ISSN   0094-5765.
  93. ↑ "Antarctica - IGY, Treaty, Exploration | Britannica". www.britannica.com. July 13, 2024. Retrieved July 14, 2024.
  94. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions". The Arctic Council.
  95. ↑ Bertelsen, Rasmus Gjedssø (2019). "The Arctic as a Laboratory of Global Governance: The Case of Knowledge-Based Cooperation and Science Diplomacy". The GlobalArctic Handbook. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 251–267. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91995-9_15. ISBN   978-3-319-91994-2. S2CID   158623637.
  96. ↑ Turekian, Vaughan (September 17, 2012). "The Morning After: Grand Challenges, Science Diplomacy, and the 2012 Election". Science & Diplomacy. 1 (3).
  97. 1 2 Weiss, Charles (November 19, 2015). "How Do Science and Technology Affect International Affairs?". Minerva. 53 (4): 411–430. doi:10.1007/s11024-015-9286-1. ISSN   0026-4695. S2CID   146479992.
  98. ↑ McKay, Christopher P. (2013). "The Case for a NASA Research Base on the Moon". New Space. 1 (4): 162–166. Bibcode:2013NewSp...1..162M. doi:10.1089/space.2013.0018. ISSN   2168-0256.
  99. ↑ Höne, Katharina E.; Kurbalija, Jovan (2018). "Accelerating Basic Science in an Intergovernmental Framework: Learning from CERN's Science Diplomacy". Global Policy. 9: 67–72. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12589 . ISSN   1758-5880.
  100. ↑ Clery, Daniel (July 29, 2014). A piece of the sun : the quest for fusion energy. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN   978-1-4683-0889-1. OCLC   861479006.
  101. ↑ Wilson, Gary (December 11, 2014), "Antarctic Science: A Case for Extending Diplomacy for Science", Science Diplomacy, World Scientific, pp. 69–85, doi:10.1142/9789814440073_0004, ISBN   978-981-4440-06-6
  102. ↑ Almeida, Celia (February 28, 2020), "Global Health Diplomacy: A Theoretical and Analytical Review", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.013.25, ISBN   978-0-19-063236-6
  103. ↑ Darby, Sefton (December 11, 2014), "The Emperor's New Clothes: A Failure of Diplomacy in the Oil and Mining Sectors", Science Diplomacy, World Scientific, pp. 133–153, doi:10.1142/9789814440073_0007, ISBN   978-981-4440-06-6
  104. ↑ Pan, Min; Huntington, Henry P. (2016). "A precautionary approach to fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean: Policy, science, and China". Marine Policy. 63: 153–157. Bibcode:2016MarPo..63..153P. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2015.10.015 . ISSN   0308-597X.
  105. ↑ Boutwell, Jeffrey (December 11, 2014), "Triangulating Science, Security and Society: Science Cooperation and International Security", Science Diplomacy, World Scientific, pp. 201–217, doi:10.1142/9789814440073_0010, ISBN   978-981-4440-06-6
  106. ↑ Tanczer, Leonie Maria; Brass, Irina; Carr, Madeline (2018). "CSIRTs and Global Cybersecurity: How Technical Experts Support Science Diplomacy". Global Policy. 9: 60–66. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12625 . ISSN   1758-5880.
  107. ↑ Patman, Robert G.; Davis, Lloyd S. (2017). "Science Diplomacy in the Indo-Pacific Region: A Mixed but Promising Experience". Politics & Policy. 45 (5): 862–878. doi:10.1111/polp.12228. ISSN   1555-5623.
  108. ↑ Hoffman, Morton Z.; Lerman, Zafra M. (2015), "The Malta Conferences: Fostering International Scientific Collaborations Toward Peace in the Middle East", in H. N. Cheng; Marinda Li Wu; Bradley D. Miller (eds.), Jobs, Collaborations, and Women Leaders in the Global Chemistry Enterprise, ACS Symposium Series, vol. 1195, Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, pp. 81–95, doi:10.1021/bk-2015-1195.ch008, ISBN   978-0-8412-3067-5
  109. ↑ Milkoreit, Manjana (December 11, 2014), "Science and Climate Change Diplomacy: Cognitive Limits and the Need to Reinvent Science Communication", Science Diplomacy, World Scientific, pp. 109–131, doi:10.1142/9789814440073_0006, ISBN   978-981-4440-06-6
  110. ↑ Elizabeth Thompson, H. (April 6, 2018). "Science Diplomacy within Sustainable Development: A SIDS Perspective". Global Policy. 9: 45–47. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12515 . ISSN   1758-5880.
  111. ↑ Kaltofen, Carolin; Acuto, Michele (2018). "Rebalancing the Encounter between Science Diplomacy and International Relations Theory". Global Policy. 9: 15–22. doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12620 . hdl: 11343/284855 . ISSN   1758-5880.
  112. ↑ Obama, Barack (June 4, 2009). "Remarks by the President on a New Beginning". whitehouse.gov . Archived from the original on January 21, 2017. Retrieved June 4, 2009– via National Archives.
  113. ↑ Witze, Alexandra (August 25, 2009). "US plans for science outreach to Muslim world". Nature.
  114. ↑ Turekian, Kristin M. Lord and Vaughn (2009). "The Science of Diplomacy". Brookings. Retrieved August 14, 2020.
  115. ↑ Fedoroff, Nina V. (January 9, 2009). "Science diplomacy in the 21st century". Cell. 136 (1): 9–11. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2008.12.030 . ISSN   1097-4172. PMID   19135879. S2CID   30960172.
  116. ↑ Schweitzer, Glenn E. (2009). Interacademy programs between the United States and Eastern Europe, 1967-2009 : the changing landscape. National Academies Press. ISBN   978-0-309-14442-1. OCLC   897031134.
  117. ↑ "H.R. 4801 (111th): Global Science Program for Security, Competitiveness, and Diplomacy Act of 2010". Govtrack.
  118. ↑ "The Madrid Declaration on Science Diplomacy". EU Science Diplomacy. February 12, 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
  119. ↑ Doubravka Olšáková; Sam Robinson (May 4, 2022). "War in Ukraine highlights the enduring myths of science diplomacy". Impact of Social Sciences. Retrieved May 27, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. ↑ Gaind, Nisha; Abbott, Alison; Witze, Alexandra; Gibney, Elizabeth; Tollefson, Jeff; Irwin, Aisling; Van Noorden, Richard (July 21, 2022). "Seven ways the war in Ukraine is changing global science". Nature. 607 (7919): 440–443. Bibcode:2022Natur.607..440G. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01960-0. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   35859193.
  121. ↑ "CERN Council declares its intention to terminate cooperation agreements with Russia and Belarus at their expiration dates in 2024". June 17, 2022.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.