Science and technology in India

Last updated

Vikram Sarabhai--a physicist considered to be 'the father of India's space program'-- was instrumental in the creation of both the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Physical Research Laboratory Vikram Sarabhai.jpg
Vikram Sarabhai—a physicist considered to be 'the father of India's space program'— was instrumental in the creation of both the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Physical Research Laboratory

After independence, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, initiated reforms to promote higher education and science and technology in India. [2] The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)—conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs in order to promote technical education—was inaugurated on 18 August 1951 at Kharagpur in West Bengal by the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. [3] More IITs were soon opened in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s along with the regional RECs (now National Institutes of Technology (NIT). Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled the Indian Space Research Organisation to rapidly develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.

Contents

India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and development in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007. However, according to former Indian science and technology minister Kapil Sibal, India is lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries. [4] India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States. [4] India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002–2003. [5] For comparison, China invested about four times more than India, while the United States invested approximately 75 times more than India on science and technology. [5]

While India has increased its output of scientific papers fourfold between 2000 and 2015 overtaking Russia and France in absolute number of papers per year, that rate has been exceeded by China and Brazil; Indian papers generate fewer cites than average, and relative to its population it has few scientists. [6]

India is ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023. [7]

History

Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a nuclear physicist known as "father of the Indian nuclear program". Homi Jehangir Bhabha 1960s.jpg
Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a nuclear physicist known as "father of the Indian nuclear program".

1947–1967

The office of the Hijli Detention Camp (photographed September 1951) served as the calling of IIT Kharagpur. IIT Kharagpur Old Building 1951.jpg
The office of the Hijli Detention Camp (photographed September 1951) served as the calling of IIT Kharagpur.

India aimed "to convert India's economy into that of a modern state and to fit her into the nuclear age and do it quickly." [2] It was understood that India had not been at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, and hence made an effort to promote higher education, and science and technology in India. [2]

Planning Commission (1950) fixed investment levels, prescribed priorities, divided funds between agriculture and industry, and divided resources between the state and the federal governments. [2] The result of the efforts between 1947 and 1962 saw the area under irrigation increase by 45 million acres (180,000 km2), food production rise by 34 million metric tons, installed power generating capacity increase by 79 million kilowatts, and an overall increase of 94 percent in industrial production. [2] The enormous population rise, however, would balance the gains. [2] The economically beleaguered country was nevertheless able to build a large scientific workforce, second in numbers only to that of the United States and the Soviet Union. [2]

Education—provided by the government of India—was free and compulsory up to the Age of 14. [8] More emphasis was paid to the enhancement of vocational and technical skills. [8] J. P. Naik, member-secretary of the Indian Education Commission, commented on the educational policies of the time: [8]

The main justification for the larger outlay on educational reconstruction is the hypothesis that education is the most important single factor that leads to economic growth [based on] the development of science and technology.

India's first reactor (Apsara) and a plutonium reprocessing facility, as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966 Trombay.jpg
India's first reactor (Apsara) and a plutonium reprocessing facility, as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966

On 18 August 1951 the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, inaugurated the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur in West Bengal. [3] Possibly modeled after the Massachusetts Institute of Technology these institutions were conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs under the chairmanship of N. R. Sarkar. [3]

The Sino-Indian war (1962) came as a rude awakening to military preparedness. [9] Military cooperation with the Soviet Union—partially aimed at developing advanced military technology—was pursued during subsequent years. [9] The Defence Research and Development Organisation was formed in 1958.

Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930. [10] In 1947 it was given the name All India Radio and since 1957 it has been called Akashvani. [10] Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965. [10]

The Indian Government acquired the EVS EM computers from the Soviet Union, which were used in large companies and research laboratories. [11]

1967–1985

The roots of nuclear power in India lie in the early acquisition of nuclear reactor technology from several western countries, particularly the American support for the Tarapur Atomic Power Station and Canada's CANDU reactors. [12] The peaceful policies of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi may have delayed the inception of nuclear technology in India. [12]

Stanley Wolpert (2008) describes the measures taken by the Indian government to increase agricultural output: [13]

The Indian space program received only financial support from the Soviet Union, which helped the Indian Space Research Organisation achieve aims such as establishing the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, launching remote sensing satellites, developing India's first satellite—Aryabhatta, and sending astronauts into space. [9] India sustained its nuclear program during the aftermath of Operation Smiling Buddha, the country's first nuclear tests. [9]

Though the roots of the Steel Authority of India Ltd. lie in Hindustan Steel Private Limited (1954), the events leading up to the formation of the modern avatar are described below: [14]

The Ministry of Steel and Mines drafted a policy statement to evolve a new model for managing industry. The policy statement was presented to the Parliament on 2 December 1972. On this basis, the concept of creating a holding company to manage inputs and outputs under one umbrella was mooted. This led to the formation of Steel Authority of India Ltd. The company, incorporated on 24 January 1973 with an authorized capital of Rs. 2000 crore, was made responsible for managing five integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela and Burnpur, the Alloy Steel Plant and the Salem Steel Plant. In 1978 SAIL was restructured as an operating company.

In 1981, the Indian Antarctic Programme was started when the first Indian expedition was flagged off for Antarctica from Goa. More missions were subsequently sent each year to India's base Dakshin Gangotri. [15]

1986–1990

Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam A. P. J. Abdul Kalam in 2008.jpg
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam
Infosys Media Centre in Bangalore BangaloreInfosys.jpg
Infosys Media Centre in Bangalore

Indian agriculture benefited from the developments made in the field of biotechnology, for which the Department of Biotechnology was created in 1986 under the Ministry of Science and Technology. [16] Both the Indian private sector and the government have invested in the medical and agricultural applications of biotechnology. [16] Massive biotech parks were established in India while the government provided tax deduction for research and development under biotechnological firms. [16]

1991–2000

The Indian economy underwent economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalisation and international economic integration. [17] Economic growth of over 6% annually was seen between 1993 and 2002. [17] Same year a new permanent Antarctic base Maitri was founded and remains in operation till date. [15]

2001–present

On 25 June 2002, India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology. [18] A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development. [18] India holds Associate Member State status at CERN, while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Centre is due at Bangalore. [18] Certain scientists and activists, such as MIT systems scientist VA Shiva Ayyadurai, blame caste for holding back innovation and scientific research in India, making it difficult to sustain progress while regressive social organisation prevails. [19] In addition, corruption and inefficiencies in the research sector and have resulted in corruption scandals and undermine innovation initiatives. [20]

Bangalore is considered to be the technological capital of India. [21] IT, biotechnology, aerospace, nuclear science, manufacturing technology, automobile engineering, chemical engineering, ship building, space science, electronics, computer science and other medical science related research and development are occurring on a large scale in the country.[ citation needed ]

In 2017, India became an associate member of European Organization for Nuclear Research.

India's science and technology policy

The Government of India has passed four policy documents on science and technology: [22]

The fifth policy, the National Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy, is in the draft and public consultation stage. [23]

Space exploration

Mars Orbit Mission

Artist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft. Mars Orbiter Mission - India - ArtistsConcept.jpg
Artist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft.

The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called "Mangalyaan", [24] was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). [25] [26] [27] It is India's first interplanetary mission, [28] making ISRO the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency. [29] The first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit and the first nation to do so on its first attempt was India. [30] [31] [32]

Chandrayaan programme

On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact probe was released from Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km (62 mi). During its 25-minute descent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered during this time. [33] On 24 September 2009 Science journal reported that the Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon. [34]

Chandrayaan-2 was launched on 22 July 2019. It was a partial success: The team wanted to send an additional lander with rover Vikram with the original orbiter in it, to mark India's terrestrial presence on Moon, but the signal connection was lost about 2.1 km (1.3 mi) above the lunar surface. Over several months team tried to resume contact with lander, but ended up with no success. Later, by the late February 2020, it was claimed that an Indian software engineer from Chennai living in USA studied the NASA data of the proposed crashed site and found the Lander.

Chandrayaan-3 is a next planned mission of sending only the lander with rover inside on the Moon, with the Japan's JAXA. It was delayed due to COVID-19 pandemic

Gaganyaan

Gaganyaan is a future planned, "in-development-process" space module to send the Indian astronauts into space, who are being trained in Russia. The plan is to establish a new "space-station" other than the ISS. India has kept itself from being part of the program, to show its "self reliance". The program was, too, delayed due to the pandemic of COVID-19.[ citation needed ]

Thirty Meter Telescope

The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned, eighteen story, astronomical observatory and extremely large telescope to be built on the summit of Mauna Kea in the state of Hawaii. The TMT is designed for near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared (0.31 to 28 μm wavelengths) observations, featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur. The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed ELTs. The telescope has government-level support from several R&D spending nations: China, Japan, Canada and India.[ citation needed ]

Institutions and facilities

Science academies in India

The idea of science academies in India has evolved along with the Indian independence movement. The three major science academies Indian National Science Academy, Indian Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, India were all founded in the pre-independence era (pre-1947) between 1930 and 1935.

Indian Academy of Sciences

Also referred to colloquially as the "Bangalore Academy", Indian Academy of Sciences (IAS) was founded in 1934 by C. V. Raman, a Nobel laureate in physicis of his time in Bangalore (now Bengaluru), Karnataka (formerly known as the State of Mysore), India. [35] ," ⠀⠀

National Academy of Sciences, India

The founder and first president of the National Academy of Sciences, India (NASI) was Meghnad Saha in 1930 in Allahabad (Prayag), Uttar Pradesh, India. [36]

Indian National Science Academy

Founded in 1935 based on a proposal by the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) and National Institute of Science of India (NISI) with Meghnad Saha's blessings, [37] Indian National Science Academy (INSA) is based in New Delhi, India. According to its charter, the historical aim of the INSA was to be similar to the Royal Society, London, a gathering of learned people to exchange ideas and further science.

Biosafety facilities in India

Performance of Indian students in International Science Olympiads

India's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years(2014-2023):

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lander (spacecraft)</span> Type of spacecraft

A lander is a spacecraft that descends towards, then comes to rest on the surface of an astronomical body other than Earth. In contrast to an impact probe, which makes a hard landing that damages or destroys the probe upon reaching the surface, a lander makes a soft landing after which the probe remains functional.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ISRO</span> Indias national space agency

The Indian Space Research Organisation is the national space agency of India. It operates as the primary research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India while the Chairman of ISRO also acts as the executive of DoS. ISRO is primarily responsible for performing tasks related to space-based operations, space exploration, international space cooperation and the development of related technologies. ISRO is one of the six government space agencies in the world that possesses full launch capabilities, can deploy cryogenic engines, can launch extraterrestrial missions and operate a large fleet of artificial satellites. ISRO is one of the four government space agencies to have soft landing (uncrewed) capabilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chandrayaan-1</span> First lunar orbiter of Indias Chandrayaan Programme

Chandrayaan-1 was the first Indian lunar probe under the Chandrayaan programme. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included an orbiter and an impactor. India launched the spacecraft using a PSLV-XL rocket on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. The mission was a major boost to India's space program, as India researched and developed indigenous technology to explore the Moon. The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vikram Sarabhai</span> Indian physicist and astronomer

Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai Jain was an Indian physicist and astronomer who initiated space research and helped to develop nuclear power in India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moon landing</span> Arrival of a spacecraft on the Moons surface

A Moon landing or lunar landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. This includes both crewed and robotic missions. The first human-made object to touch the Moon was Luna 2, on 13 September 1959.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mylswamy Annadurai</span> Indian scientist (born 1958)

Mylswamy Annadurai, popularly known as Moon Man of India, is an Indian scientist working as vice president for Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology (TNSCST), Chairman, Board of Governors, National Design and Research Forum(NDRF. He was born on 2 July 1958, in a village called Kothavadi near Pollachi in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu state of India). Prior to taking this assignment he was with Indian Space Research Organisation and served as Director, ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore. During his 36 years of service in ISRO, he had some of the major contributions, including two of the major missions of ISRO, namely Chandrayaan-1 and Mangalyaan. Annadurai has been listed among 100 Global thinkers of 2014 and topped the innovators list. His works are mentioned in textbooks of Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education

<span class="mw-page-title-main">G. Madhavan Nair</span> Indian aerospace engineer

G. Madhavan Nair is an Indian space scientist and a former Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation, and Secretary to the Department of Space, Government of India. He has also been the Chairman of the Space Commission and Chairman of the Governing Body of the Antrix Corporation, Bangalore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anil Bhardwaj</span> Indian astrophysicist (born 1967)

Anil Bhardwaj is an Indian astrophysicist. He is the director of the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), which is a unit of the Department of Space of Government of India in Ahmedabad, India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chandrayaan-2</span> Ongoing Indian lunar orbiter mission

Chandrayaan-2 is the second lunar exploration mission developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) after Chandrayaan-1. It consists of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lunar lander, and the Pragyan rover, all of which were developed in India. The main scientific objective is to map and study the variations in lunar surface composition, as well as the location and abundance of lunar water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moon Impact Probe</span> Lunar robotic craft developed by ISRO

The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India's national space agency, was a lunar probe that was released by ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 lunar remote sensing orbiter which in turn was launched, on 22 October 2008, aboard a modified version of ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. It discovered the presence of water on the Moon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">K. Radhakrishnan</span> Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation

Koppillil Radhakrishnan is an Indian space scientist who headed the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) between November 2009 and December 2014 as Chairman of Space Commission, Secretary of the Department of Space and Chairman of ISRO. Prior to this, he was the Director of Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (2007-2009) and Director of National Remote Sensing Agency (2005-2008) of the Department of Space. He had a brief stint of five years (2000-2005) in the Ministry of Earth Sciences as Director of Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS). Under his leadership of ISRO, India became the first country to reach Mars in its first attempt.

Thekkethil Kochandy Alex is an Indian space scientist. He was the director of the ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) (2008–2012) and Member, Space Commission. He specialized in electro-optic systems and satellite technology. Starting with the first Indian satellite Aryabhata, he has been responsible for the sensor systems in all the Indian satellites. Under his leadership the Laboratory for Electro Optics Systems (LEOS) was established in 1993 and from the inception he was its director till 2008. He was conferred "Dr. Vikram Sarabhai Distinguished Professorship" in 2011.

Vipparthi Adimurthy is the ISRO Honorary Distinguished Professor, VSSC. He was the former Satish Dhawan Professor and Dean of Research at the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST). Prior to joining IIST, Adimurthy held the post of associate director at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, a major facility center of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). He is known for his contributions to the rocket technology and space dynamics. He is a recipient of Padma Shri from the Government of India. Murthy is the Mission Concept Designer, for India's Mars Orbiter Mission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mars Orbiter Mission</span> Indian space probe, launched in 2013

The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), unofficially known as Mangalyaan, was a space probe orbiting Mars since 24 September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It was India's first interplanetary mission and it made ISRO the fourth space agency to achieve Mars orbit, after Roscosmos, NASA, and the European Space Agency. It made India the first Asian nation to reach the Martian orbit and the first nation in the world to do so on its maiden attempt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">A. S. Kiran Kumar</span> Indian Space Scientist

Aluru Seelin Kiran Kumar is an Indian space scientist and former chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation, having assumed office on 14 January 2015. He is credited with the development of key scientific instruments aboard the Chandrayaan-1 and Mangalyaan space crafts. In 2014, he was awarded the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award, for his contributions to the fields of science and technology. Kiran Kumar previously served as Director of Ahmedabad Space Applications Centre.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chandrayaan programme</span> Indian Lunar exploration programme

The Chandrayaan programme also known as the Indian Lunar Exploration Programme is an ongoing series of outer space missions by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) for the exploration of the Moon. The program incorporates a lunar orbiter, an impactor, a soft lander and a rover spacecraft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">K. Sivan</span> Indian aerospace engineer

Sivan Kailasavadivu is an Indian aerospace engineer who served as the Secretary of the Department of Space and Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation(ISRO) and Space Commission. He has previously served as the Director of the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center and the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ritu Karidhal</span> Indian scientist and aerospace engineer

Ritu Karidhal Srivastava is an Indian scientist and aerospace engineer working in the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). She was a Deputy Operations Director to India's Mars orbital mission, Mangalyaan. She has been referred to as one of the many "Rocket Women" of India. Giving tribute to her excellence in Mangalayaan mission, a Bollywood film Mission Mangal was created where Indian actress Vidya Balan did her role.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chandrayaan-3</span> Indian lunar lander mission

Chandrayaan-3 is the third mission in the Chandrayaan programme, a series of lunar-exploration missions developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The mission consists of a Vikram lunar lander and a Pragyan lunar rover similar to those launched aboard Chandrayaan-2 in 2019, as well as a propulsion module that carried the spacecraft from Earth orbit to lunar orbit.

References

Citations
  1. ↑ Burleson, D. (2008). Space Programs Outside the United States: All Exploration and Research Efforts, Country by Country. McFarland. 136. ISBN   0-7864-1852-4
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nanda 2006
  3. 1 2 3 Vrat 2006
  4. 1 2 "India lagging behind in S&Tt: Govt". 17 February 2009.
  5. 1 2 "India lagging in science and technology, says official". scidev.net. 29 August 2006.
  6. ↑ Van Noorden, Richard (2015). "India by the numbers". Nature. 521 (7551): 142–143. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..142V. doi: 10.1038/521142a . PMID   25971491. S2CID   4444175.
  7. ↑ Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (13 November 2023). Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition. World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN   9789280534320 . Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  8. 1 2 3 Prabhu 2006
  9. 1 2 3 4 Khan 2006
  10. 1 2 3 Schwartzberg 2008
  11. ↑ Desai 2006
  12. 1 2 Raja 2006
  13. ↑ Wolpert 2008
  14. ↑ SAIL (2008). Background and History. Archived 7 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  15. 1 2 "Maitri". 70south.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
  16. 1 2 3 Sharma 2006, Biotechnology Revolution
  17. 1 2 Sharma 2006 Globalization
  18. 1 2 3 Ketkar 2006
  19. ↑ "Scientist blames caste for India's backwardness in research". The Times of India . 25 July 2013. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  20. ↑ Reddy, Prashant (20 May 2012). "CSIR Tech. Pvt. Ltd: Its controversial past and its uncertain future". SpicyIP.com. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
  21. ↑ "India's Top Tech Cities". DATAQUEST. 7 June 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  22. ↑ Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy 2020. Background Note. Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. Retrieved on 13 February 2021. Archived on 13 February 2021.
  23. ↑ "Draft 5th National Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy for public consultation". Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. 22 January 2021. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  24. ↑ "Mangalyaan". ISRO. NASA. 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
  25. ↑ Walton, Zach (15 August 2012). "India Announces Mars Mission One Week After Landing". Web Pro News. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
  26. ↑ "Manmohan Singh formally announces India's Mars mission". The Hindu. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
  27. ↑ Bal, Hartosh Singh (30 August 2012). "BRICS in Space". The New York Times. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
  28. ↑ "India's Mars Shot". The New York Times. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
  29. ↑ "India Launches Mars Orbiter Mission" . Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  30. ↑ "India's Mars satellite successfully enters orbit, bringing country into space elite". The Guardian. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India has become the first nation to send a satellite into orbit around Mars on its first attempt, and the first Asian nation to do so.
  31. ↑ "India becomes first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, joins elite global space club". The Washington Post. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India became the first Asian nation to reach the Red Planet when its indigenously made unmanned spacecraft entered the orbit of Mars on Wednesday
  32. ↑ "India's spacecraft reaches Mars orbit ... and history". CNN. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2014. India's Mars Orbiter Mission successfully entered Mars' orbit Wednesday morning, becoming the first nation to arrive on its first attempt and the first Asian country to reach the Red Planet.
  33. ↑ "Water on the Moon: Direct evidence from Chandrayaan-1's Moon Impact…".
  34. ↑ "Character and Spatial Distribution of OH/H2O on the Surface of the Moon Seen by M3 on Chandrayaan-1". Science Mag. 15 September 2009. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
  35. ↑ Home Page of the Indian Academy of Sciences
  36. ↑ Home Page of the National Academy of Sciences India
  37. ↑ Home Page of the Indian National Science Academy
Bibliography

Further reading

Policy
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.