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Science and technology is Jordan's growing economic sector. This growth is occurring across multiple industries, including information and communications technology (ICT), solar and wind energy and nuclear technology. [1] [2]
Established in 1987, Jordan's Higher Council for Science and Technology is an independent public body that acts as a national umbrella organisation for scientific research. It is the Higher Council for Science and Technology which drew up the first national policy for science and technology in 1995. In 2013, it completed the national Science, Technology and Innovation Policy and Strategy (2013–2017), which has seven broad objectives. These are to: [3]
The Higher Council for Science and Technology has identified five domains in which projects are to be implemented to operation the policy; the institutional framework; policies and legislation; science, technology and innovation infrastructure; human resources; and the science, technology and innovation environment. A review of the national innovation system indicated that research was not doing enough to support economic expansion and find solutions to enduring issues like those involving water, energy, and food. Around 24 projects with a projected cost of around US$14 million for the years 2013–2017 were put forth, however as of 2015, the government had not yet awarded any funds for them. These include a review of the national policy for science and technology, institutionalizing innovation, developing incentive schemes for researchers and innovators, founding technology incubators and setting up a research database. A unit is to be created within the Higher Council for Science and Technology specifically for expatriate Jordanian scientists. The council is responsible for implementing, following up and evaluating all 24 projects, along with relevant ministries. [3]
Since about 2009, the Higher Council for Science and Technology has been involved in a project that is setting up an Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation, in collaboration with the United Nations’ Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). The observatory will maintain the country's first comprehensive database of domestic research and is to be hosted by the Higher Council for Science and Technology. [3]
In 2013, the Higher Council for Science and Technology published the National Innovation Strategy, 2013–2017 (despite the similarity in name, not to be confused with the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy and Strategy, 2013–2017). The National Innovation Strategy, 2013–2017 had been prepared in collaboration with the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, with the support of the World Bank. Targeted fields include energy, environment, health, ICTs, nanotechnology, education, engineering services, banking and clean technologies. [3]
Jordan's Scientific Research Support Fund was revived in 2010 after being instituted in 2006. Administered by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, it finances investment in human resources and infrastructure through competitive research grants related to ecological water management and technological applications. The fund backs entrepreneurial ventures and helps Jordanian companies to solve technical problems; it also encourages private bodies to allocate resources for R&D and provides university students with scholarships based on merit. So far, the fund has provided 13 million Jordanian dinars (circa US$18.3 million) to finance R&D projects in Jordan, 70% of which has been used to fund projects in energy, water and health care. [3]
The revamped Scientific Research Support Fund is also intended to streamline the activities supported by the Fund for Scientific Research and Vocational Training (est. 1997). This fund was launched partly to ensure that all public shareholding Jordanian companies either spent 1% of their net profits on research and development or vocational training within their own structure or paid an equivalent amount into the fund for redistribution for the same purpose. After difficulties related to what the definition of research and vocational training were according to the fund, new regulations were adopted in 2010 to clarify the terms. [3]
Jordan boasts relatively mature higher education infrastructure that includes some of the oldest universities in the Arab world. [3] For instance, the University of Jordan was founded in 1962 [5] and is Jordan's largest university. It claims to have 17% international students. Other universities and public and private research institutes of note in the country include:
Among major science and technology events are the MENA ICT Forum, while organizations associated with higher education include the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, which issues a number of science journals.
In 1999, government spending on education was 4.94% of GDP, with higher education equating to 0.92% of GDP. [6] There were 60,686 tertiary students in 2011. Just 12% of them (7,225) graduated in science and engineering fields that year, compared to 44% in Tunisia. In 2014, 52% of tertiary graduates in science, engineering and agriculture were women, equating to 65% of students in natural sciences, 13% of students in engineering and 74% of students in agriculture. [3] Like other Arab governments, Jordan is setting up an observatory to monitor its innovation system. When studying the data collected, however, analysts have sometimes correlated the number of graduates or faculty and the number of researchers, despite the fact that many Arab universities are not research universities, with higher education systems in Jordan often struggling scarce resources and burgeoning student numbers, with conflict between whether to focusing time and assets on teaching or research. [3]
The research intensity of Jordan is fairly low (0.43% of GDP in 2008), despite a growing number of public and private universities. Jordan trails the leading members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation for this indicator, namely Malaysia (1.07% of GDP in 2011), Turkey (0.86% of GDP in 2011), Morocco (0.73% in 2010), Egypt and Tunisia (0.68% of GDP in 2013 and 2012 respectively). Moreover, these five countries have announced their intention to raise their research intensity in coming years. [3] Jordan was ranked 71st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 86th in 2019. [7]
In many Arab states, the bulk of domestic research expenditure is performed by the government sector, followed by the higher education sector. The private sector assumes little or even no role in the research enterprise. Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates are exceptions to the rule. The European Commission's Erawatch has estimated that the private sector performs one-third of research expenditure in Jordan. This compares with 30% in Morocco (2010), 29% in the United Arab Emirates (2011), 26% in Qatar (2012) and 24% in Oman (2011), according to Erawatch. The figure is closer to 20% in Tunisia, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. [3]
In a context of rapid population growth, the number of researchers per million inhabitants is a more telling indicator of progress than sheer numbers. Jordan had 9,092 researchers (in head counts) in 2015, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, a density of 1,197 researchers per million inhabitants. These figures were higher in 2008, when there were 11,310 researchers in Jordan, representing a density of 1,913 per million inhabitants. [8]
The share of women researchers dropped between 2008 and 2015 from 22.5% to 19.7%. [8] In 2008, women accounted for 26% of researchers in natural sciences, 18% of those in engineering, 44% of those in medical sciences, 19% of those in agricultural sciences and 32% of researchers in social sciences and humanities. [3]
Table: Share of female Arab researchers (%)
Selected countries, in head counts
Tunisia (2008) | 47.4 |
Egypt (2013) | 42.8 |
Bahrain (2013) | 41.2 |
Kuwait (2013) | 37.3 |
Iraq (2011) | 34.2 |
Morocco (2011) | 30.2 |
Oman (2011) | 24.9 |
Palestine (2010) | 22.6 |
Jordan (2015) | 19.7 |
Qatar (2012) | 21.9 |
Saudi Arabia (2009) | 1.4 |
Source: For Jordan, UNESCO Institute for Statistics. For the other countries: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 17.7. Note: the data on Saudi Arabia only cover one university.
Between 2005 and 2014, the number of publications catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) climbed in almost every country in the world. In Jordan, the number rose from 641 (2005) to 1,093 (2014), with the growth rate slowing after 2008 after publications crossed the 1,000 a year threshold. With 146 publications per million inhabitants in 2014, Jordan's output in terms of scientific papers was of median level in the Arab world. It is surpassed by Qatar (548 per million), Saudi Arabia (371), Tunisia (276), Lebanon (203), Kuwait (174), the United Arab Emirates (154) and Oman (151) for this indicator.
Two-thirds of articles produced by scientists in the Arab world between 2008 and 2014 were co-authored with international partners. Jordan's closest collaborators were based in the United States of America (1,153 articles), Germany (586), Saudi Arabia (490), the United Kingdom (450) and Canada (259). [3]
The Thomson Reuters selection of Highly Cited Researchers of 2014 listed only three Arab scientists whose ‘first’ affiliation is with a university in the Arab world. They were Prof. Ali H. Nayfeh (University of Jordan and Virginia Tech), Prof. Shaher El-Momani (University of Jordan and King Abdulaziz University in Saudi Arabia) and Prof. Salim Messaoudi (Algeria), a faculty member of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia. [3]
The majority of patent applications in Jordan are submitted by non-residents. This pattern is found throughout the Arab world. The number of patent applications submitted by Jordanian residents remained stable between 2010 and 2012 (see table).
Table: Patent applications in Arab states, 2010–2012
For countries with more than 15 patent applications in 2012
Patent applications by residents | Patent applications by non-residents | Total patent applications | |||||||
2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | |
Egypt | 605 | 618 | 683 | 1 625 | 1 591 | 1 528 | 2 230 | 2 209 | 2 211 |
Morocco | 152 | 169 | 197 | 882 | 880 | 843 | 1034 | 1 049 | 1 040 |
Saudi Arabia | 288 | 347 | 643 | 643 | 931 | 990 | |||
Algeria | 76 | 94 | 119 | 730 | 803 | 781 | 806 | 897 | 900 |
Tunisia | 113 | 137 | 150 | 508 | 543 | 476 | 621 | 680 | 626 |
Jordan | 45 | 40 | 48 | 429 | 360 | 346 | 474 | 400 | 394 |
Yemen | 20 | 7 | 36 | 55 | 37 | 49 | 75 | 44 | 85 |
Lebanon | 13 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 2 | 2 |
Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Table 17.5
Jordan is home to the King Abdullah II Design and Development Bureau (KADDB), an independent government entity within the Jordanian Armed Forces that develops defence products and security solutions for the region. KADDB works with Jordanian universities to help students tailor their research projects to KADDB's needs. [3]
Jordan contributes 75% of the Arabic content on the Internet. [9] The ICT sector is the fastest-growing sector in the Jordanian economy with a 25% annual growth rate. The sector accounts for more than 84,000 jobs and contributes 12% to GDP. [10] There are 400 companies in Jordan operating across the spectrum of telecom, information technology (IT), online and mobile content, business outsourcing and video game development. It has been estimated that these subsections of the ICT industry will create over 18,000 jobs between 2015 and 2020. [11] [12] Roba al Assi, a Jordanian blogger who currently works at Bayt.com managing the sub-division, Bayt Communities, attributes much of the credit for Jordan's booming ICT sector to the open source community, citing groups and organizations like the Jordan Open Source Association, GeekFest and Amman Tech Tuesdays. 'What helps is that we are a country of human resources, as opposed to natural resources', he has said. 'In the absence of money and more lucrative industries, the Jordanian youth has spent the past decade building its passion for the "you can do what you want attitude" of our industry'. Al Issi adds the information technology educational structure to the list of Jordanian assets. 'Historically, most of the large web start-ups have been Jordanian in origin, like Manitoba, al-Bawaba and Jeeran,' she adds. [1]
Jordan's ICT sector has also enjoyed the support of the monarchy. Queen Rania has touted the expansion of social media and used Twitter and YouTube to address the country. [13]
Jordan imports over 95% of its energy needs, at a cost of about one-fifth of its GDP. Natural gas used to provide the bulk of Jordan's energy supply but this has changed since 2012, owing to gas supply constraints from Egypt. Jordan's electricity supply is now more than 90% reliant on heavy fuel oil and diesel. By 2015, Jordan is expected to need to generate 3,600 MWe to satisfy its energy needs, which are estimated to rise to 5000 MWe by 2020 and 8000 MWe by 2030. [14]
To compound matters, Jordan has a water deficit of about 600 million cubic metres (m3) per year (1500 m3 demand, 900 m3 supply). It pumps about 60 million m3/yr of fossil suburbanite water from the Disi/Saq aquifer, a rate that is set to rise to 160 million m3/yr in 2013. [14]
Jordan's 2007 national energy strategy has envisaged taking 29% of primary energy from natural gas, 14% from oil shale, 10% from renewable and 6% from nuclear by 2020.
In March 2017, the Jordan Atomic Energy Agency signed an agreement with Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy for a feasibility study on construction of two small modular reactors by 2020 near Qasr Amra for the production of electricity and desalinated water. Additionally, a small research reactor was inaugurated in December 2016, called the Jordan Research and Training Reactor, located at the Jordan University of Science and Technology campus in Ar-Ramtha. Its intent is to train nuclear engineers in Jordan through the existing nuclear engineering program. [14]
Inaugurated in December 2015, the 117 MW Tafila wind farm in Jordan was the Middle East's largest onshore wind power development at the time. [15]
Jordan is also investing in solar energy. The National Electric Power Company, Jordan's state electricity provider, signed a power purchase agreement in October 2016 with Masdar, Abu Dhabi's renewable energy company, for the construction of a 200 MW solar plant 10km outside Amman. The solar facility is being developed by Masdar's subsidiary, the Baynouna Solar Energy Company. Once connected to the national grid, the solar facility will supply the annual power needs of around 110,000 homes and displace an estimated 360,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions each year. Masdar has selected International Finance Corporation (IFC), a member of the World Bank Group, to oversee the funding of what will be the largest solar power plant in Jordan. [15]
The combined output of the Tafila wind farm and Baynouna solar project will account for nearly 18% of the 1.8 GW of renewable energy that Jordan plans to install by 2020. [15]
Jordan will launch its first nano-satellite Cubesat in February 2018, with the name of JY1; the late King Hussein's amateur radio call sign. The satellite is being constructed by university students who received a two-month internship at NASA previously, through an initiative launched by the country's Crown Prince Foundation. [16]
In March 2014, the Council of Ministers of Higher Education and Scientific Research in the Arab World endorsed the draft Arab Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation at its 14th congress in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The strategy has three main thrusts: academic training in science and engineering, scientific research and regional and international scientific cooperation. One of the strategy's key objectives is to involve the private sector more in regional and interdisciplinary collaboration, in order to add economic and development value to research and make better use of available expertise. Up to now, science, technology and innovation policies in Arab states have failed to catalyses knowledge production effectively or add value to products and services because they focus on developing research without taking the business community on board. There has also been a lot of talk about re-orienting the education system towards innovation and entrepreneurship but little action. [3]
In the Arab Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation, countries are urged to engage in greater international co-operation in 14 scientific disciplines and strategic economic sectors, including nuclear energy, space sciences and convergent technologies such as bioinformatics and nanotechnology. The Strategy advocates involving scientists from the diaspora and urges scientists to engage in public outreach; it also calls for greater investment in higher education and training to build a critical mass of experts and staunch brain drain. The Strategy nevertheless eludes some core issues, including the delicate question of who will foot the hefty bill of implementing the strategy. [3]
Jordan hosts a world-class research facility which is also fostering scientific co-operation, the Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), which was officially inaugurated on 17 May 2017 but had begun conducting experiments earlier. [17] Construction of the center began in Allan in 2003 and was completed in 2008. The other eight members of SESAME are Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, the Palestinian Authority and Turkey. SESAME was established under the auspices of UNESCO at the turn of the century before becoming a fully independent intergovernmental organization in its own right. The center is also supported by the European Commission and by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). [3]
Synchronous have become an indispensable tool for modern science. They work by accelerating electrons around a circular tube at high speed, during which time excess energy is given off in the form of light. The light source acts like a super X-ray machine and can be used by researchers to study everything from viruses and new drugs to novel materials and archaeological artifacts. There are about 50 such storage-ring based synchronous in use around the world. Although the majority are found in high-income countries, Brazil and China also have them. [3]
Jordan is one of the ten founding members of the Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, which was established in Cairo, Egypt, in June 2008. The centers acts as a platform for regional exchanges on policy and technical issues. It also encourages private-sector participation to promote the growth of a regional industry in renewable energy. The other eight founding partners are Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco, Libya, Palestine, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen. The center has several development partners, including the European Union, German Agency for Technical Co-operation and the Danish International Development Agency. [3]
Jordan has hosted the ESCWA Technology Center since its inception in 2011. The center's mission is ‘to assist member countries and their public and private organizations to acquire the necessary tools and capabilities to accelerate socio-economic development. [3]
In 1986, a handful of scientists persuaded the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and others in the developing world to create the Islamic World Academy of Sciences, which is headquartered in Amman, Jordan This independent, apolitical, non-governmental organization receives seed funding from Jordan and raises funds for its activities from the OIC and other international bodies, including United Nations agencies. The Islamic World Academy of Sciences combines three functions: [18]
Within the International Continental Drilling Program, researchers from Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian Authority implemented a scientific project which entailed a deep-drilling expedition to the Dead Sea in 2010. The project involved six countries, in all. [3]
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 , 431-469, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
Science and technology in Israel is one of the country's most developed sectors. Israel spent 4.3% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on civil research and development in 2015, the highest ratio in the world. In 2019, Israel was ranked the world's fifth most innovative country by the Bloomberg Innovation Index. It ranks thirteenth in the world for scientific output as measured by the number of scientific publications per million citizens. In 2014, Israel's share of scientific articles published worldwide (0.9%) was nine times higher than its share of the global population (0.1%).
Science and technology is a growing field in Pakistan and has played an important role in the country's development since its founding. Pakistan has a large pool of scientists, engineers, doctors, and technicians assuming an active role in science and technology. The real growth in science in Pakistan occurred after the establishment of the Higher education Commission in 2002 which supported science in a big way and also became the major sponsor of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman. The emphasis was placed on quality rather than numbers during this period. The quality measures introduced by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman as Founding Chairman HEC included:1) All Ph.D. thesis were evaluated by eminent foreign scientists,2) All PhD theses and research papers were checked for plagiarism 3) Some 11,000 students were sent abroad to leading universities for PhD level training and absorbed on their return, 4) Appointments at faculty positions were linked to international stature of the applicants as judged from their international publications, patents and citations, and (5) Quality Enhancement Cells were established in all universities for the first time in the history of the country. (6) The minimum criteria for establishment of a new university were approved by the Cabinet and universities that did not meet these criteria were closed down. (7) The Model University Ordinance was approved setting the governance parameters for new universities. (8) A list of fake higher education institutions was prepared and made public. (9) Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) was set up within the Higher Education Commission that established Quality Enhancement Cells (QECs) as its operational units in public and private-sector universities across the country. (10) The funding of universities was linked to excellence in teaching and research under a formula based funding mechanism that considered enrolment, subjects and quality of teaching and research. The first IT policy and implementation strategy was approved under the leadership of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, then Federal Minister of Science & technology, in August 2000 which laid the foundations of the development of this sector On the request of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman, Intel initiated a nationwide programme to train school teachers in Information and Communication technologies in March 2002 which has led to the training of 220,000 school teachers in 70 districts and cities across Pakistan. A 15-year tax holiday was approved on the recommendation of Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman which has resulted in growth of IT business from $30 million in 2001 to over $3 billion. The Pakistan Austria University of Applied Engineering (Fachhochschule) has been established in Haripur Hazara under a Steering Committee Chaired by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman in which students will get degrees from several Austrian universities. Pakistan's growth in scientific output can be seen from the fact that in 1990 Pakistan published 926 scholarly documents while in 2018 the number rose to 20548, a twenty times increase.In contrast India published 21443 scholarly documents in 1990 and the number rose to 171356 in 2018, an eight times increase. In 2018, 336 people per million were researchers in the R&D in Pakistan compared to 256 people per million being researchers in India. The reforms begun by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS in 2003-2008 have continued over the subsequent decade and according to the Web of Science report, there was a 300% growth in research publications in 2019 over the decade, with 2019 marking the first year in which Pakistan was ranked above the world average in research. In 2019, Pakistan produced 300% more publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection than in 2010. In the decade of 2010-2019, more than half of Pakistan’s research was published in journals with Impact Factor. The global influence of Pakistan’s research is increasing as scientists in the country are publishing more in top quartile journals. The Category Normalized Citation Impact of Pakistan’s publications has risen from 0.67 to 1.03. output. As of 2020, Pakistan has 85% teledensity with 183 million cellular, 98 million 3G/4G and 101 million broadband subscribers, due to the foundations laid by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman of the IT and telecom industry during 2000-2008. In an analysis of scientific research productivity of Pakistan, in comparison to Brazil, Russia, India and China, Thomson Reuters has applauded the developments that have taken place as a result of the reforms introduced by Prof. Atta-ur-Rahman FRS, since Pakistan has emerged as the country with the highest increase in the percentage of highly cited papers in comparison to the "BRIC" countries
Science and technology in Morocco has significantly developed in recent years. The Moroccan government has been implementing reforms to encourage scientific research in the Kingdom. While research has yet to acquire the status of a national priority in Morocco, the country does have major assets that could transform its R&D sector into a key vehicle for development. The industry remains dominated by the public sector, with the universities employing 58% of researchers. Morocco's own evaluation of its national research system – carried out in 2003 – revealed that the country has a good supply of well trained high quality human resources and that some laboratories are of very high quality. However, the greatest gap at that point of time lied in the link between research and innovation. The educational qualifications of Moroccan researchers have increased significantly since the early 1990s. The University of Al-Karaouine is considered the oldest continuously operating academic degree-granting university in the world.
Expenditure for scientific research and Development in Albania does not exceed 0.18% of GDP, which marks the lowest level in Europe. Economic competitiveness and exports are low, with the economy still heavily skewed towards low technology.
Energy in Jordan describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Jordan. Jordan is among the highest in the world in dependency on foreign energy sources, with 92.3% of the country's energy supply being imported.
Science and technology in Botswana examines recent trends and developments in science, technology and innovation policy in this country. The Republic of Botswana was one of the first countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) to adopt a science and technology policy in 1998. This was later updated in 2011.
Malawi is one of the least developed countries in the world. But it spends 1% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on research and development (R&D), making it have one of the highest ratios in Africa. The country has 93% of its population still lacking access to electricity, 47% of whom have improved sanitation, and one in four adults lacks any form of family planning.
The European Union's scientific collaboration beyond the bloc describes the European Union's frameworks for bilateral cooperation and specific projects in science and technology, with countries and regional blocs situated beyond the European Union.
Science and technology in Tanzania describes developments and trends in higher education, science, technology, innovation policy, and governance in the United Republic of Tanzania since the turn of the century.
Science and technology in Armenia describes trends and developments in science, technology and innovation policy and governance in Armenia.
Science and technology in Kazakhstan – government policies to develop science, technology and innovation in Kazakhstan.
Science and technology in Uzbekistan examines government efforts to develop a national innovation system and the impact of these policies.
Science and technology in Uganda refers to the growth within the technological industry in response to government efforts to develop a national innovation system, as well as any subsequent socioeconomic and cultural impacts of these endeavours.
Science and technology in Kyrgyzstan examines government efforts to develop a national innovation system and the impact of these policies.
Science and technology in Tajikistan examines government efforts to develop a national innovation system and the impact of these policies.
Science and technology in Cape Verde examines government policies designed to foster a national innovation system and the impact of these policies.
Science and technology in Burkina Faso summarizes the changes and trends that have occurred in Burkina Faso since 2010 and places them in the viewpoint of the sub-region.
In Ivory Coast, a country in West Africa, scientific output has been relatively modest. Scientists in Ivory Coast produced only 10 scholarly articles per million inhabitants in international journals in 2014, compared to a continental average of 20 per million. Between 2008 and 2014, scientists published mostly in biological sciences, followed by medical sciences, geosciences, agriculture and chemistry. The country also has few international collaborations, compared to the rest of the continent: whereas more than eight out of ten articles had a foreign co-author in most countries in 2014, the rate in Ivory Coast was 73%.
The main managing agency responsible for science and technology (S&T) in Vietnam is the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST). MOST's responsibilities include scientific research, technology development and innovation activities; development of science and technology potentials; intellectual property; standards, metrology and quality control; atomic energy, radiation and nuclear safety; and state management on public services in fields under the Ministry’s management as stipulated by law.
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