Stadium diplomacy

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Stadium diplomacy refers to the construction of stadiums and sports facilities in other nations as a form of foreign aid. China is the most prominent practitioner of this strategy, using it as a form of soft power to bolster diplomatic ties. [1] [2] [3] The practice dates back to at least 1958, when China funded the National Sports Stadium in Mongolia. [4]

Contents

Chinese diplomacy

The following includes overseas stadiums and sports facilities that were either donated outright or built with financial assistance from the Chinese government, typically in the form of grants, concessional loans, or other aid-linked financing in cooperation with the host country. [2] Projects carried out solely by Chinese construction firms on commercial terms, without financing support from the Chinese government, are not included.

Africa

Estádio 11 de Novembro in Luanda; Estádio Nacional do Chiazi in Cabinda; Ombaka National Stadium in Benguela; and Tundavala National Stadium in Lubango were all constructed by Chinese firms for the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations. One of the stadiums was provided at no direct cost, in exchange for Angola entering into two concessional loan agreements with China. [5]
Friendship Stadium was built with Chinese help in 1982 [6]
Stade du 4 Août was built with a total cost of 4 billion CFA francs [7]
Yaoundé Multipurpose Sports Complex (2009) was built in downtown Yaoundé as a gift from the Chinese government. Limbe Stadium (2012) and Kouekong Stadium (2016) in Bafoussam were both constructed by Chinese contractors with financing from concessional loans provided by the Export-Import Bank of China. [8] [9]
The 15,000 seater National Stadium (2013) construction by Top International Engineering began in 2010 and ended in 2013, at a cost of 1.4 billion Cape Verdean escudos, funded by the Chinese government. [10]
Barthélemy Boganda Stadium was built from 2003 to 2006 at a cost of 12 billion CFA and seats 20,000 spectators. [11]
A new 30,000 seater national stadium, to be named after N'Garta Tombalbaye, is being built in N'Djamena with total cost of 50 billion CFA franc. [12]
Construction began in May 2025 on a China-aided stadium and swimming center. [13]
Stade des Martyrs, opened in 1994 and was the second largest stadium at that time, was built by Chinese funds. [14]
China State Construction Engineering was one of the companies which built various sport venues in Brazzaville for Congolese preparation to host 2015 All-Africa Games which includes a 60,000 seater main stadium, a multi-sports arena, and an indoor pool. [15]
Djibouti City Stadium was built at the cost of 11 million USD between 1991 and 1993.[ citation needed ]
Estadio de Bata was built by China Overseas Engineering Group in 2007. [16] Estadio de Malabo was also built with support from Chinese government. [17]
Stade d'Angondjé, also called the Sino-Gabonese Friendship Stadium, was a gift from Chinese government. [14] Chinese government also helped in building Stade d'Oyem and Stade de Port-Gentil when Gabon was selected to host 2017 Africa Cup of Nations. [18]
Independence Stadium was a gift by Chinese government and built in 1984. [19]
Sekondi-Takoradi Stadium (2008) and Tamale Stadium (2008) were constructed with Chinese assistance, while Baba Yara Stadium and Accra Sports Stadium were renovated, all in preparation for the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, supported by a soft loan of USD 31 million from the Chinese government. [20] Cape Coast Sports Stadium (2016), a 15,000-seat multipurpose venue built by China Jiangxi Corporation at a reported cost of USD 30 million, was officially handed over to the Ministry of Youth and Sports as one of Ghana’s largest China-aided infrastructure projects at the time. [21] In March 2025, following a temporary CAF suspension of Ghana’s stadiums for international matches, the government announced plans to renovate the Cape Coast facility and designate it as the exclusive home venue for the Black Stars. [22]
Nongo Stadium is a 50,000 seater stadium finished in 2012 as a gift from Chinese government to the country. [23] As Guinea was selected to host 2025 Africa Cup of Nations, an agreement was signed between two countries to further construct three more stadiums. [24]
Estádio 24 de Setembro is built by China National Corporation For Overseas Economic Cooperation. [25] The stadium was later refurbished with Chinese help. [26]
Stade Olympique d'Epimbé, a new stadium built for hosting 2023 Africa Cup of Nations, is funded by Chinese government and designed by Beijing Institute Architectural Design. [27]
Moi International Sports Centre, a facility which includes 60,000 seat stadium, 120-room hotel, and large swimming pool was built by the Chinese government as an assistance project in 1987 to enable Kenya host the All Africa Games. Another Chinese government grant of 12.8 million USD provided funds for the refurbishment of the complex from 2010-2012 by Shengli Engineering Construction. [28] [29]
Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex was built in 1986 with Chinese funds. [30] The stadium was later renovated with Chinese assistance. [31]
Malawi National Stadium was opened in 2017 and costs USD 70 million which is funded by Chinese concessional loan. [32]
Stade du 26 Mars was built by a Chinese construction firm for 2002 Africa Cup of Nations [33]
Nouakchott Olympic Stadium was built in 1985 by Chinese government and later also renovated with Chinese funds in 2017. [34]
The financing for 15,000 seat multi-use Stade Anjalay (1991) was provided by the government of China in the form of a 35 million RMB loan for construction of the stadium and two bridges. [35] [36] The loan did not carry interest, and had a 10-year grace period and 10 year repayment term. [35]
Estádio do Zimpeto, the main venue for 2011 All-Africa Games, is built with US$ 70 million from Chinese government and can hold up to 42,000 spectators. [37]
Both the building of the Stade Général Seyni Kountché and its renovation almost two decades later were funded by Chinese support. Initial construction was handled by the China National Corporation for Overseas Economic Cooperation and renovation construction was handled by the China Geo-Engineering Corporation. [38] [39]
Stade Amahoro (1988) - Construction of this aid project by the China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation started in 1984 and finished in 1988. [40] During the Rwandan genocide the stadium was the safety point which Tutsis tried to escape to as it was secured by UN peacekeepers. [41]
Leopold Senghor Stadium (1985) is a 60,000 seat stadium financed by the Chinese government. [42]
Swimming pool (1992) - The Chinese government assisted in the construction of a swimming pool in 1992 and would later also help out in the renovation of the pool in 2011, in time for the training of Seychellois athletes for the forthcoming Indian Ocean Islands Games. [43]
National Stadium [44] and Bo Stadium (2014) [45]
Mogadishu Stadium (1978) - The stadium seating a capacity of 35,000 was constructed by a Chinese construction firm. The structure has withstood the long conflict in Somalia, and serves as the staging base for the peacekeeping operations of AMISOM and earlier to that was a base for United Nations Operation in Somalia II, forming part of the backdrop of the events of Black Hawk Down. [46]
A new 15,000 seater stadium in Juba built with Chinese funding has been approved by South Sudanese government. [47]
Uhuru Stadium enlargement (1969); Amaan Stadium (1970); Tanzania National Main Stadium (2007) - Construction work to enlarge the Dar es Salaam stadium was completed in June 1969 based on Chinese aid. [48] The Amaan Stadium was constructed with Chinese aid in 1970 and underwent refurbishment again with Chinese assistance, reopening in 2010. [49]
Stade de Kégué is built in 2000 by funds from Chinese government. [50]
Mandela National Stadium (1997) - The 40,000 seat stadium opened in 1997 as a donation by the Chinese government. Another grant by the Chinese government of 3 million in 2011 funded a facelift for the stadium. [51] [52]
Chinese firms are involved in building Levy Mwanawasa Stadium [53] and National Heroes Stadium [54] together with the refurbishment of Independence Stadium. [55]
Chinese government funded both the building of National Sports Stadium in 1987 and its refurbishment in 2006. [56]

Americas

Sir Vivian Richards Stadium (2007) - Funded by a Chinese government grant, the 60 million USD cricket stadium is a 20,000 seat complex built in time for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. [57]
National Stadium of The Bahamas at Queen Elizabeth Sports Centre (2012) - The 35 million USD stadium was chosen by the government of the Bahamas from among several choices for a substantial gift from China. [58]
Garfield Sobers Gymnasium (1992) - A 6,000 seat sports facility with a swimming pool and facilities for 12 sports in total that was built during 1990-1992 by China State Construction Engineering, based on a grant of 16 million Barbados dollars by the Chinese government. [59] [60]
National Stadium (2024)
National Stadium, built following a breakaway from diplomatic recognition of Taiwan in favor of China by the Costa Rican government in 2007, China spent an estimated 100 million USD to construct the stadium from 2008 to 2011. [61] Local newspaper, the Tico Times called the stadium "Costa Rica’s jewel" and the design "an aerodynamic masterpiece". [61]
Windsor Park (2007) - In exchange for severing diplomatic ties with Taiwan in 2004, the government of China donated the 12,000 seat stadium, constructed and designed at a cost of 45 million East Caribbean dollars by China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation and Wuhan Architectural and Design Institute along with several Dominican engineers sent to China to join the design team. [62] A local paper covering the opening night described "scenes of raw excitement and drama not seen in Dominica since November 3, 1978 when the island attained political independence from Great Britain...Roseau erupted in a wild frenzy for a moment in time that probably won’t be repeated again in the lifetimes of the thousands gathered to witness it." [62]
National Stadium, is currently under construction in Antiguo Cuscatlán after El Salvador cut ties with Taiwan in 2018 and reestablished ties with China. The stadium's capacity will be 50,000. The announcement was made on 30 December 2021 by Nayib Bukele on Twitter. China will spend an estimated 500 million USD to construct the stadium from 2022 to 2025. [63] [64]
Queen's Park Stadium (2007) - The hurricane damaged stadium was rebuilt as a 40 million USD gift from China in time for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. [65] The gift from China was provided following the switch in diplomatic allegiance from Taiwan to China in 2005 by the Grenadan government. [65] Subsequently the Export-Import Bank of Taiwan sued the government of Grenada for defaulting on a loan, part of which was intended to fund the Queen's Park Stadium. [65]
Sligoville Mini-Stadium (2007), including a 600-seat basketball and netball court; 1,200-seat cricket oval; a 1,500-seat football field; and a 400-metre track circling the football field. The gift from the government of China was constructed by the Shanxi Construction Engineering Group Corporation. A site inspection by a journalist from the Jamaica Observer in 2013 found the stadium to be in ruins due to the neglect resulting from a strict policy of not allocating any funds for maintenance. [66]
George Odlum Stadium (2002) - The 9,000 capacity stadium was built with financing by China. [67] After abandoning ties with China and recognizing Taiwan in 2007, the Taiwanese government provided grant money in 2009 for the refurbishment of the facility and installation of a state of the art track, in time for the Carifta Games. [68] In the aftermath of a fire that burned down one of two public hospitals in the country, some of stadium facilities were converted into a fully functional hospital with "two operating rooms, an ER Department, as well as a Medical, Paediatric and a Surgical Ward". [69]
Anthony Nesty Sporthal (1987) - An indoor sports hall built by the Chinese government and paid for through a loan extended from China. The facility is actively used to host sports events, concerts, fairs, and occasional political assemblies for electing the President of Suriname. [70]

Asia

In 2014, Prime Minister Hun Sen requested that China help construct a stadium for Cambodia in advance of the 2023 Southeast Asian Games. [71] : 50  China began building Morodok Techo National Stadium in 2017 at a cost of US$169 million and completed it for Cambodia in December 2021. [71] : 50 
New Laos National Stadium (2009) - A sports complex with a 25,000 seat main venue and a 2,000 capacity indoor aquatics complex, with an outdoor warm-up pool, a tennis centre with 2,000 seats, six other tennis courts, two indoor stadiums each with a seating for 3,000 and an indoor shooting range with 50 seats. It was built in time for the 2009 Southeast Asian Games. In August 2008 the government stated 200 hectares of land in the outskirts of Vientiane was exchanged as part of the financing agreement with the Chinese government. [72]
National Sports Stadium (1958) and Buyant Ukhaa Sport Palace (2011) – The National Sports Stadium in Ulaanbaatar was constructed in 1958 with Chinese aid and was among the first major sports infrastructure projects funded by China during the Cold War. It marked the start of extensive Chinese development assistance to Mongolia and remains the country’s most important sporting venue, hosting the annual Naadam festival. Decades later, the National Wrestling Palace was completed in 2011 with a ¥28 million grant from the Chinese government, providing a modern indoor arena to support traditional Mongolian wrestling and enhance training and competition facilities. [73] [74]
Thuwunna Stadium and National Theatre of Yangon were built by the Chinese government as gifts in the 1980s, those buildings were also renovated with Chinese help. [75]
Although the stadium was not built by China, separate grants by the Chinese government funded renovation of the Dashrath Stadium in 1999 and 2012. In the 1999, an international-level synthetic track was installed. [76] For the 2012 upgrade a 500 KW generator was installed and repairs took care of the 1200-lux floodlights, scoreboard, speakers and sound system. [76]
A stadium located in Damascus built in 1980 by China National Corporation for Overseas Economic Cooperation using Chinese government aid funds. [38] [77]

Europe

Chinese government announced the intention to gift a new national football stadium and a swimming pool to Belarus in 2019. [78]

South Pacific

Telecom Sports Arena (2009) - A 1000-seat sports complex housing netball, volleyball, handball, weightlifting, and squash. Funding for the $14 million facility came from concessional loans provided by the Chinese government.
FSM-China Friendship Sports Center (2002) - A multipurpose gym built from 1999-2002 by the Guangzhou International Economic And Technical Cooperation Company at a cost of 5 million USD was turned over to FSM from the government of China. [79]
National Hockey Centre - Built with financial assistance from the Chinese government for the 2003 South Pacific Games. [80]
Betia Sports Complex (2006) - Construction of the sports complex began in 2002 with a 5.5 million USD grant from the government of China. [81] When Kiribati severed diplomatic ties with China by switching to Taiwan, China suspended work on the partially completed project. [82] Taiwan restarted construction and the complex opened in 2006. [83] The facilities include indoor and outdoor basketball courts, a soccer and football ground and a gymnasium seating more than one thousand.
Wewak Sports Stadium (2010) - A stadium was built at a cost of 19 million Kina, the combined contribution of 12 million Kina in funds from the Chinese government and 7 million Kina contributed by Papua New Guinea. [84]
Apia Park Stadium (1983) - A stadium built as an aid project by China for Samoa to host the 7th South-Pacific Games. [85] When it came time in 2007, for Samoa to once again host the games, the Chinese government provided a grant of 19 million USD to refurbish the facilities, using a team of Chinese engineers with local contractors to do the work. [86] [87]
National Stadium (2023) - A stadium was built at a cost of 71 million US dollars, as part of an aid project by China for Solomon Islands to host the 17th Pacific Games. [88]

Diplomacy by other countries

Providence Stadium (2006) - A 15,000 seat cricket stadium. A USD$6 million (euro4.7 million) grant and USD$19 million (euro15 million) in loans by the Government of India. [1]
Phoenix Stadium (2010) - Funded by the United States to replace a soccer stadium destroyed by the Haiti earthquake.

See also

References

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  2. 1 2 Vondracek, Hugh (2019). "China's Stadium Diplomacy and its Determinants: a typological investigation of soft power". Journal of China and International Relations. 7 (1). doi:10.5278/jcir.v7i1.6638.
  3. ↑ Will, Rachel (2012). "China's Stadium Diplomacy". World Policy Journal. XXIX (2).
  4. ↑ Chang, Wei; Xue, Charlie; Ding, Guanghui (16 April 2019). "Architecture of Diplomacy: Chinese Construction Aid in Asia, 1950–1976". ARENA Journal of Architectural Research. 4 (1): 10–11. doi: 10.5334/ajar.147 . Retrieved 9 September 2019.
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  7. ↑ "Le stade du 4 Août : 35 ans de vie !". citeelegance.net. 2018-12-07. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
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  12. ↑ "Tchad : pose de la première pierre du nouveau stade de N'Djamena". Tchadinfos.com. 2019-08-08. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
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  14. 1 2 Bayo, Ibrahima Jr. (24 February 2017). "Diplomatie des stades : la Chine construit son image sur les pelouses". La Tribune. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
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  17. ↑ "New countries: Equatorial Guinea and Gabon". stadiumdb.com. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
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  38. 1 2 "Reference List of Recent Major Urban Public Infrastructure Projects". China National Corporation for Overseas Economic Cooperation.
  39. ↑ "China Donated Project of Reparation of SEYNI KOUNTCHE Stadium in Niger". China Geo-Engineering Corporation International Ltd.
  40. ↑ "Stadium of Rwanda". China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation.
  41. ↑ "Flashback to terror" . The Independent. 29 March 2006. Archived from the original on 2022-05-24.
  42. ↑ "Leopold Senghor Stadium in Dakar, Senegal". Xinhua/Tai Jianqiu. Archived from the original on March 28, 2013.
  43. ↑ "China hands over national swimming pool to Seychelles ahead of Indian Ocean Island Games". Xinhua. July 9, 2011. Archived from the original on December 8, 2011.
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  46. ↑ "Chinese structures endure in Mogadishu, Somalia". CCTV. 2012-06-28.
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  53. ↑ Emmanuel Barranguet: China the master stadium builder; The Africa Report, 2 July 2010; first published in: The Africa Report’s World Cup 2010, May 2010.
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  56. ↑ Vickers, Steve (2006-10-19). "Zimbabwe to renovate main stadium". BBC. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
  57. ↑ "China Splurges on Caribbean Cricket in Quest to Isolate Taiwan". Bloomberg. March 7, 2007.
  58. ↑ Archibald, Randal C. (April 7, 2012). "China Buys Inroads in the Caribbean, Catching U.S. Notice". The New York Times.
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  60. ↑ Explore Barbados. Manatee Press. 2000. p. 102.
  61. 1 2 "Costa Rica's 35,000-seat National Stadium opens". Tico Times. March 25, 2011. Archived from the original on October 5, 2013.
  62. 1 2 Douglas, Sean (October 29, 2007). "Thousands join in the opening of the Windsor Park stadium". thedominican.net.
  63. ↑ "El Salvador Introduced the development of a brand new stadium". Daily News Day. 31 December 2021.
  64. ↑ "Republic of El Salvador: The construction of Estadio Nacional begins!". StadiumDB.com. 9 September 2022.
  65. 1 2 3 "World Cup gaffe". Jamaica Gleaner. February 5, 2007.
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  71. 1 2 Strange, Austin (2023-12-21). Chinese Global Infrastructure (EPUB). Elements in Global China. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009090902. ISBN   978-1-009-09090-2.
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  73. ↑ Jinxia Dong, Sport and Politics in the Modern Olympic Games: A History of the Power Game, Routledge, 2022, pp. 22–29.
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  76. 1 2 "Dashrath Stadium Renovation". Xinhua. Dec 7, 2012.
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  78. ↑ "Belarus president promises support to China in any area". belta.by. 2019-04-25. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
  79. ↑ "FSM-China dedicates multi-purpose gym". Government of the Federated States of Micronesia.
  80. ↑ "Facilities". Fiji Sports Council.
  81. ↑ "Foundations laid for Kiribati sports complex". Radio Australia. 28 November 2002.
  82. ↑ "China Pulls Out of Kiribati, Taiwan Moves In". Pacific Islands Report. April 15, 2004.
  83. ↑ "Kiribati Rises to the Occasion to Host Outstanding Development Visit". ITTF News. 2007-09-24.
  84. ↑ Gare, Cyril. "Graffiti goes on stadium". Mamose Post.
  85. ↑ "China-Samoa The Fruitful Economic and Trade Cooperation". Ministry of Commerce.
  86. ↑ "15,000 Stadium Open for Games". The Fiji Times. July 26, 2007.
  87. ↑ Mayron, Sapeer (12 November 2019). "Stadiums the new diplomatic frontier". Samoa Observer. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  88. ↑ Wilson, Catherine. "Solomon Islands eyes 'long-lasting legacy' as counts down to Pacific Games". Al Jazeera.
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