Literature

Not to be confused with Literature (card game).

The Library of the Palais Bourbon in Paris

Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, plays, and poems. ^[1] It includes both print and digital writing. ^[2] In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed. ^{[3] [4]} Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment. It can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.

Literary criticism is one of the oldest academic disciplines, and is concerned with the literary merit or intellectual significance of specific texts. The study of books and other texts as artifacts or traditions is instead encompassed by textual criticism or the history of the book. "Literature", as an art form, is sometimes used synonymously with literary fiction, fiction written with the goal of artistic merit, ^{[5] [6]} but can also include works in various non-fiction genres, such as biography, diaries, memoirs, letters, and essays. Within this broader definition, literature includes non-fictional books, articles, or other written information on a particular subject. ^{[7] [8]}

Developments in print technology have allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, while the digital era had blurred the lines between online electronic literature and other forms of modern media.

Definitions

Definitions of literature have varied over time. ^[9] In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. It can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions, so that cultural studies, for instance, include, in addition to canonical works, popular and minority genres. The word is also used in reference to non-written works: to "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate culture".^{[ citation needed ]}

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura, "learning, writing, grammar," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera, "letter." ^[10] In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts. ^{[11] [12]} Literature is often referred to synecdochically as "writing," especially creative writing, and poetically as "the craft of writing" (or simply "the craft"). Syd Field described his discipline, screenwriting, as "a craft that occasionally rises to the level of art." ^[13]

A value judgment definition of literature considers it as consisting solely of high quality writing that forms part of the belles-lettres ("fine writing") tradition. ^[14] An example of this is in the 1910–1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, which classified literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing". ^[15]

History

Main article: History of literature

Oral literature

Main article: Oral literature

See also: African literature § Oral literature

A traditional Kyrgyz manaschi performing part of the Epic of Manas at a yurt camp in Karakol, Kyrgyzstan

The use of the term "literature" here poses some issues due to its origins in the Latin littera, "letter," essentially writing. Alternatives such as "oral forms" and "oral genres" have been suggested, but the word literature is widely used. ^[4]

Australian Aboriginal culture has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed down through tens of thousands of years. In a study published in February 2020, new evidence showed that both Budj Bim and Tower Hill volcanoes erupted between 34,000 and 40,000 years ago. ^[16] Significantly, this is a "minimum age constraint for human presence in Victoria", and also could be interpreted as evidence for the oral histories of the Gunditjmara people, an Aboriginal Australian people of south-western Victoria, which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in existence. ^[17] An axe found underneath volcanic ash in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill. ^[16]

Oral literature is an ancient human tradition found in "all corners of the world." ^[18] Modern archaeology has been unveiling evidence of the human efforts to preserve and transmit arts and knowledge that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, across various cultures:

The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by performing scribes; geometric vases from archaic Greece mirror Homer's oral style. (...) Indeed, if these final decades of the millennium have taught us anything, it must be that oral tradition never was the other we accused it of being; it never was the primitive, preliminary technology of communication we thought it to be. Rather, if the whole truth is told, oral tradition stands out as the single most dominant communicative technology of our species as both a historical fact and, in many areas still, a contemporary reality. ^[18]

The earliest poetry is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a way of remembering history, genealogy, and law. ^[19]

In Asia, the transmission of folklore, mythologies as well as scriptures in ancient India, in different Indian religions, was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. ^[20]

The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down. ^[21] According to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate society". ^[22]

All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so. ^[23] Homer's epic poetry, states Michael Gagarin, was largely composed, performed and transmitted orally. ^[24] As folklores and legends were performed in front of distant audiences, the singers would substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavor and thus connect with the audience by making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition as unreliable. ^[25] The lack of surviving texts about the Greek and Roman religious traditions have led scholars to presume that these were ritualistic and transmitted as oral traditions, but some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an exclusive product of an oral tradition. ^[26]

Writing systems are not known to have existed among Native North Americans (north of Mesoamerica) before contact with Europeans. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the use of writing to record and preserve history, scientific knowledge, and social practices. ^[27] While some stories were told for amusement and leisure, most functioned as practical lessons from tribal experience applied to immediate moral, social, psychological, and environmental issues. ^[28] Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated characters and circumstances with real emotions and morals as a means of teaching. Plots often reflect real life situations and may be aimed at particular people known by the story's audience. In this way, social pressure could be exerted without directly causing embarrassment or social exclusion. ^[29] For example, rather than yelling, Inuit parents might deter their children from wandering too close to the water's edge by telling a story about a sea monster with a pouch for children within its reach. ^[30]

The enduring significance of oral traditions is underscored in a systemic literature review on indigenous languages in South Africa, within the framework of contemporary linguistic challenges. Oral literature is crucial for cultural preservation, linguistic diversity, and social justice, as evidenced by the postcolonial struggles and ongoing initiatives to safeguard and promote South African indigenous languages. ^[31]

Oratory

Oratory or the art of public speaking was considered a literary art for a significant period of time. ^[7] From ancient Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a central role in Western education in training orators, lawyers, counselors, historians, statesmen, and poets. ^{[32] [note 1]}

Writing

Further information: History of writing

Limestone Kish tablet from Sumer with pictographic writing; may be the earliest known writing, 3500 BC. Ashmolean Museum

Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. ^[34] Though in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have already emerged because of the need to record historical and environmental events. Subsequent innovations included more uniform, predictable legal systems, sacred texts, and the origins of modern practices of scientific inquiry and knowledge-consolidation, all largely reliant on portable and easily reproducible forms of writing.

Early written literature

Main articles: History of literature, Ancient literature, and History of books

Ancient Egyptian literature, ^[35] along with Sumerian literature, are considered the world's oldest literatures. ^[36] The primary genres of the literature of ancient Egypt—didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and tales—were written almost entirely in verse; ^[37] By the Old Kingdom (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included funerary texts, epistles and letters, hymns and poems, and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early Middle Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created. ^[38]

Many works of early periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra (200 BC – 300 AD), based on older oral tradition. ^{[39] [40]} Drama and satire also developed as urban cultures, which provided a larger public audience, and later readership for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs (1046–c. 600 BC). ^{[41] [42] [43]}

Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II", from the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom

In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print cultures. ^[44] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou dynasty (769‒269 BC). ^[45] The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War , c. 5th century BC) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian , c. 94 BC). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan , which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BC historian Zuo Qiuming. ^[46]

In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BC, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. ^{[47] [48]} The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BC, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid-2nd to mid-1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. ^[49] The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata ^{[50] [51]} and the Ramayana , ^[52] with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD such as Ramcharitmanas. ^[53]

The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B syllabary on clay tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered. ^{[54] [55]} Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature almost certainly existed in Mycenaean Greece, ^[55] but it was either not written down or, if it was, it was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive the destruction of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC. ^[55] Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey , are central works of ancient Greek literature. It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century BC. ^[56] Modern scholars consider these accounts legendary. ^{[57] [58] [59]} Most researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally. ^[60] From antiquity until the present day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been significant, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film. ^[61] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the one who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken. ^{[62] [63]} Hesiod's Works and Days (c.700 BC) and Theogony are some of the earliest and most influential works of ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC) authored philosophical texts that are regarded as the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BC) provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre. ^[64]

The Hebrew religious text, the Torah, is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (539–333 BC, probably 450–350 BC). ^[65] This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation. ^[66] This represents a major source of Christianity's Bible, which has had a major influence on Western literature. ^[67]

The beginning of Roman literature dates to 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play. ^[68] Literature in Latin would flourish for the next six centuries, and includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings.

The Qur'an (610 AD to 632 AD), ^[69] the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arab language, and marked the beginning of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad. ^{[29] [70]} As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic. ^[29]

Theological works in Latin were the dominant form of literature in Europe typically found in libraries during the Middle Ages. Western Vernacular literature includes the Poetic Edda and the sagas, or heroic epics, of Iceland, the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf , and the German Song of Hildebrandt . A later form of medieval fiction was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal. ^[71]

Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the European Renaissance as a result of the Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press ^[72] around 1440, while the Medieval romance developed into the novel. ^[73]

Publishing

The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang dynasty China, the world's earliest dated printed book, AD 868 (British Library)

Publishing became possible with the invention of writing but became more practical with the invention of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes.

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware c. 1045 and was spread to Korea later. Around 1230, Koreans invented a metal type movable printing. East metal movable type was spread to Europe between the late 14th century and early 15th century. ^{[74] [75] [76] [77]} In c. 1450, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available.

Early printed books, single sheets, and images created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330." ^[78]

Eventually, printing enabled other forms of publishing besides books. The history of newspaper publishing began in Germany in 1609, with the publishing of magazines following in 1663.

University discipline

In England

Main article: English studies

In late 1820s England, growing political and social awareness, "particularly among the utilitarians and Benthamites, promoted the possibility of including courses in English literary study in the newly formed London University". This further developed into the idea of the study of literature being "the ideal carrier for the propagation of the humanist cultural myth of a well educated, culturally harmonious nation". ^[79]

America

Main article: American literature (academic discipline)

Women and literature

Further information: French literature, German literature, Russian literature, and English poetry § Women poets in the 18th century

The widespread education of women was not common until the nineteenth century, and because of this, literature until recently was mostly male dominated. ^[80]

George Sand was an idea. She has a unique place in our age.
Others are great men ... she was a great woman.

Victor Hugo,Les funérailles de George Sand ^[81]

There were few English-language women poets whose names are remembered until the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century some notable individuals include Emily Brontë, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Emily Dickinson (see American poetry). But while generally women are absent from the European canon of Romantic literature, there is one notable exception, the French novelist and memoirist Amantine Dupin (1804 – 1876) best known by her pen name George Sand. ^{[82] [83]} One of the more popular writers in Europe in her lifetime, ^[84] being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, ^[85] Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is the first major English woman novelist, while Aphra Behn is an early female dramatist.

Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded between 1901 and 2020 to 117 individuals: 101 men and 16 women. Selma Lagerlöf (1858 – 1940) was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, which she was awarded in 1909. Additionally, she was the first woman to be granted a membership in The Swedish Academy in 1914. ^[86]

Feminist scholars have since the twentieth century sought to expand the literary canon to include more women writers.

Children's literature

The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) is a canonical piece of children's literature and one of the best-selling books ever published.

A separate genre of children's literature only began to emerge in the eighteenth century, with the development of the concept of childhood. ^{[88] : x–xi} The earliest of these books were educational books, books on conduct, and simple ABCs—often decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic letters. ^[89]

Study and criticism

Main article: Literary criticism

Literary theory

Further information: Literary theory and Philosophy and literature § The philosophy of literature

A fundamental question of literary theory is "what is literature?" – although many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that "literature" cannot be defined or that it can refer to any use of language. ^[90]

Literary fiction

Further information: Western canon § Literary canon

Dante, Homer and Virgil in Raphael's Parnassus fresco (1511), key figures in the Western canon

Literary fiction is a term used to describe fiction that explores any facet of the human condition, and may involve social commentary. It is often regarded as having more artistic merit than genre fiction, especially the most commercially oriented types, but this has been contested in recent years, with the serious study of genre fiction within universities. ^[91]

The following, by the British author William Boyd on the short story, might be applied to all prose fiction:

[short stories] seem to answer something very deep in our nature as if, for the duration of its telling, something special has been created, some essence of our experience extrapolated, some temporary sense has been made of our common, turbulent journey towards the grave and oblivion. ^[92]

The very best in literature is annually recognized by the Nobel Prize in Literature, which is awarded to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning). ^{[93] [94]}

The value of imaginative literature

Some researchers suggest that literary fiction can play a role in an individual's psychological development. ^[95] Psychologists have also been using literature as a therapeutic tool. ^{[96] [97]} Psychologist Hogan argues for the value of the time and emotion that a person devotes to understanding a character's situation in literature; ^[98] that it can unite a large community by provoking universal emotions, as well as allowing readers access to different cultures, and new emotional experiences. ^[99] One study, for example, suggested that the presence of familiar cultural values in literary texts played an important impact on the performance of minority students. ^[100]

Psychologist Maslow's ideas help literary critics understand how characters in literature reflect their personal culture and the history. ^[101] The theory suggests that literature helps an individual's struggle for self-fulfillment. ^{[102] [103]}

Aesthetic value

Further information: Aesthetic judgment and Value judgment

The influence of religious texts

Further information: Islamic literature and King James Version § Influence

Religion has had a major influence on literature, through works like the Vedas, the Torah, the Bible, ^[104] and the Quran. ^{[105] [106] [107]}

The King James Version of the Bible has been called "the most influential version of the most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language", "the most important book in English religion and culture", and "arguably the most celebrated book in the English-speaking world," ^[108] principally because of its literary style and widespread distribution. Prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature" and "a great work of literature", respectively, with Dawkins adding: "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian". ^{[109] [110]}

Societies in which preaching has great importance, and those in which religious structures and authorities have a near-monopoly of reading and writing and/or a censorship role (as, for example, in the European Middle Ages), may impart a religious gloss^{[ clarification needed ]} to much of the literature those societies produce or retain. The traditions of close study of religious texts has furthered the development of techniques and theories in literary studies.^{[ citation needed ]}

Types

Poetry

A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written words are arranged in such a way to produce a visual image.

Main article: Poetry

Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its greater use of the aesthetic qualities of language, including musical devices such as assonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm, and by being set in lines and verses rather than paragraphs, and more recently its use of other typographical elements. ^{[111] [112] [113]} This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms such as digital poetry, sound poetry, concrete poetry and prose poem, ^[114] and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm. ^[115] Abram Lipsky refers to it as an "open secret" that "prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm". ^[116]

Prior to the 19th century, poetry was commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines: "any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or Verses". ^[111] Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics ), "poetry" before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art.^{[ clarification needed ] [117]} As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition; ^{[118] [119]} hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose

Main article: Prose

As noted above, prose generally makes far less use of the aesthetic qualities of language than poetry. ^{[112] [113] [120]} However, developments in modern literature, including free verse and prose poetry have tended to blur the differences, and poet T.S. Eliot suggested that while "the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure". ^[121] There are verse novels, a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of poetry rather than prose. Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is the most famous example. ^[122]

On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that, in the case of ancient Greece, "recent scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an 'invention' properly associated with the classical period". ^[123]

Latin was a major influence on the development of prose in many European countries. Especially important was the great Roman orator Cicero. ^[124] It was the lingua franca among literate Europeans until quite recent times, and the great works of Descartes (1596 – 1650), Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727).

Novel

Main article: Novel

Sculpture in Berlin depicting a stack of books on which are inscribed the names of great German writers

See also: Genre fiction and Hypertext fiction

A novel is a long fictional narrative, usually written in prose. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late 15th century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction. ^[125] The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvelous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society". ^[126] Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo", ^[127] indicates the proximity of the forms. ^[128]

Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel", ^[129] the modern novel form emerges late in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century. ^[130] Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and critically. ^{[128] [131] [132]}

Novella

Main article: Novella

The publisher Melville House classifies the novella as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short story". ^[133] Publishers and literary award societies typically consider a novella to be between 17,000 and 40,000 words. ^[134]

Short story

Main article: Short story

A dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish it from any short narrative and its contested origin, ^[135] that include the Bible, and Edgar Allan Poe. ^[136]

Graphic novel

Main article: Graphic novel

Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of artwork, dialogue, and text.

Electronic literature

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of works created exclusively on and for digital devices.

Non-fiction

Common literary examples of non-fiction include, the essay; travel literature; biography, autobiography and memoir; journalism; letter; diary; history, philosophy, economics; scientific, nature, and technical writings. ^{[8] [137]}

Non-fiction can fall within the broad category of literature as "any collection of written work", but some works fall within the narrower definition "by virtue of the excellence of their writing, their originality and their general aesthetic and artistic merits". ^[138]

Drama

Cover of a 1921 libretto for Giordano's opera Andrea Chénier

Drama is literature intended for performance. ^[139] The form is combined with music and dance in opera and musical theatre (see libretto). A play is a written dramatic work by a playwright that is intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters. A closet drama, by contrast, is written to be read rather than to be performed; the meaning of which can be realized fully on the page. ^[140] Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.

The earliest form of which there exists substantial knowledge is Greek drama. This developed as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical, or mythological themes,

In the twentieth century, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form, including radio, television and film.

Law

Law and literature

The law and literature movement focuses on the interdisciplinary connection between law and literature.

Copyright

Further information: History of copyright

Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to make copies of a creative work, usually for a limited time. ^{[141] [142] [143] [144] [145]} The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not the idea itself. ^{[146] [147] [148]}

United Kingdom

Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710. ^[149] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean "any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database." ^[150]

Literary works are all works of literature; that is all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works). ^[151]

United States

The copyright law of the United States has a long and complicated history, dating back to colonial times. It was established as federal law with the Copyright Act of 1790. This act was updated many times, including a major revision in 1976.

European Union

The copyright law of the European Union is the copyright law applicable within the European Union. Copyright law is largely harmonized in the Union, although country to country differences exist. The body of law was implemented in the EU through a number of directives, which the member states need to enact into their national law. The main copyright directives are the Copyright Term Directive, the Information Society Directive and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market. Copyright in the Union is furthermore dependent on international conventions to which the European Union is a member (such as the TRIPS Agreement and conventions to which all Member States are parties (such as the Berne Convention)).

Copyright in communist countries

Further information: Copyright in Russia, Copyright law of the Soviet Union, and Intellectual property in China

Copyright in Japan

Japan was a party to the original Berne convention in 1899, so its copyright law is in sync with most international regulations. The convention protected copyrighted works for 50 years after the author's death (or 50 years after publication for unknown authors and corporations). However, in 2004 Japan extended the copyright term to 70 years for cinematographic works. At the end of 2018, as a result of the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations, the 70-year term was applied to all works. ^[152] This new term is not applied retroactively; works that had entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018 by expiration would remain in the public domain.

Censorship

Soviet poet Anna Akhmatova (1922), whose works were condemned and censored by the Stalinist authorities

Further information: Book censorship, Theatre censorship, and Film censorship

Censorship of literature is employed by states, religious organizations, educational institutions, etc., to control what can be portrayed, spoken, performed, or written. ^[153] Generally such bodies attempt to ban works for political reasons, or because they deal with other controversial matters such as race, or sex. ^[154]

A notable example of censorship is James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which has been described by Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov as a "divine work of art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th century prose. ^[155] It was banned in the United States from 1921 until 1933 on the grounds of obscenity. Nowadays it is a central literary text in English literature courses, throughout the world. ^[156]

Awards

There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for first-time writers or debut novels). ^[157]

The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, ^[158] and is awarded to an author on the basis of their body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work itself. ^{[note 2]} Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Award, Guardian First Book Award and the Franz Kafka Prize.

See also

• Literature portal
• Writing portal

• Index of literature articles

• List of literary movements
• List of narrative techniques
• List of poetry groups and movements
• Literary agent
• Literary magazine
• Outline of literature
• Reading
• Rhetorical modes
• Science fiction § As serious literature

Notes

1. The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in ancient Greece. ^[33]
2. However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was given.

References

1. "Literature: definition". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2020.
2. Rettberg, Scott (2019). Electronic literature. Cambridge, UK Medford, MA: Polity press. ISBN   978-1-5095-1677-3.
3. Goody 1987.
4. Goody, Jack. "Oral literature". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2020.; see also Homer.
5. A Beginner's Guide to Literary Fiction" | NY Book Editors.
6. Girolimon, Mars. "Types of Genres: A Literary Guide", Southern New Hampshire University, 11 December 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
7. Rexroth, Kenneth. "literature | Definition, Characteristics, Genres, Types, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
8. OED^{[ full citation needed ]}
9. Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 28
10. "literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
11. Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes". Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of North Dakota Session. 41 (1). Retrieved 11 February 2014.^{[ dead link ‍]}
12. Finnegan, Ruth (1974). "How Oral Is Oral Literature?". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 37 (1): 52–64. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00094842. JSTOR   614104. S2CID   190730645.(subscription required)
13. Field, Syd (2005). "Introduction". Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting. Delta. ISBN   978-0440582731.
14. Eagleton 2008, p. 9.
15. Biswas, A.R. (2005). Critique of Poetics. Vol. 2. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 538. ISBN   978-81-269-0377-1. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021.
16. Johnson, Sian (26 February 2020). "Study dates Victorian volcano that buried a human-made axe". ABC News. Archived from the original on 8 September 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
17. Matchan, Erin L.; Phillips, David; Jourdan, Fred; Oostingh, Korien (2020). "Early human occupation of southeastern Australia: New insights from 40Ar/39Ar dating of young volcanoes". Geology. 48 (4): 390–394. Bibcode:2020Geo....48..390M. doi:10.1130/G47166.1. ISSN   0091-7613. S2CID   214357121.
18. John Miles Foley. "What's in a Sign" (1999). E. Anne MacKay (ed.). Signs of Orality. Brill Academic. pp. 1–2. ISBN   978-9004112735.
19. Francis, Norbert (2017). Bilingual and Multicultural Perspectives on Poetry, Music, and Narrative: The science of art. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN   978-1-4985-5183-0.
20. Donald S. Lopez Jr. (1995). "Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna" (PDF). Numen. 42 (1). Brill Academic: 21–47. doi:10.1163/1568527952598800. hdl: 2027.42/43799 . JSTOR   3270278. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 January 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
21. "Buddhism - The Pali canon (Tipitaka) | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
22. Ong, Walter J. (2002). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Psychology Press. ISBN   978-0-415-28128-7. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
23. Reece, Steve. "Orality and Literacy: Ancient Greek Literature as Oral Literature", in David Schenker and Martin Hose (eds.), Companion to Greek Literature (Oxford: Blackwell, 2015) 43–57. Ancient_Greek_Literature_as_Oral_Literature Archived 1 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
24. Michael Gagarin (1999). E. Anne MacKay (ed.). Signs of Orality. Brill Academic. pp. 163–164. ISBN   978-9004112735.
25. Wolfgang Kullmann (1999). E. Anne MacKay (ed.). Signs of Orality. Brill Academic. pp. 108–109. ISBN   978-9004112735.
26. John Scheid (2006). Clifford Ando and Jörg Rüpke (ed.). Religion and Law in Classical and Christian Rome. Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 17–28. ISBN   978-3-515-08854-1. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
27. Kroeber, Karl, ed. (2004). Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp.  1. ISBN   978-1-4051-1541-4.
28. Kroeber, Karl, ed. (2004). Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp.  3. ISBN   978-1-4051-1541-4.
29. Kroeber, Karl, ed. (2004). Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp.  2. ISBN   978-1-4051-1541-4.
30. Doucleff, Michaeleen; Greenhalgh, Jane (13 March 2019). "How Inuit Parents Teach Kids To Control Their Anger". NPR. Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
31. Diko, Mlamli (28 July 2023). "The retainment of South African indigenous languages: a systemic literature review". International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147- 4478). 12 (5): 306–314. doi: 10.20525/ijrbs.v12i5.2427 . ISSN   2147-4478.
32. See, e.g., Thomas Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tradition (University of Chicago, 1991).
33. See, for instance Parlor, Burkean; Johnstone, Henry W. (1996). "On schiappa versus poulakos". Rhetoric Review. 14 (2): 438–440. doi:10.1080/07350199609389075.
34. Green, M.W. (1981). "The Construction and Implementation of the Cuneiform Writing System". Visible Language. 15 (4): 345–372.
35. Foster 2001, p. 19.
36. Black, Jeremy; Cunningham, Graham; Robson, Eleanor, eds. (2006). The literature of ancient Sumer. Oxford: OUP. p. xix. ISBN   978-0-19-929633-0.
37. Foster 2001, p. 7.
38. Lichtheim, Miriam (1975). Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1. London: University of California Press. ISBN   0-520-02899-6.
39. Jacobs 1888, Introduction, page xv; Ryder 1925, Translator's introduction, quoting Hertel: "the original work was composed in Kashmir, about 200 B.C. At this date, however, many of the individual stories were already ancient."
40. Ryder 1925 Translator's introduction: "The Panchatantra is a niti-shastra, or textbook of niti. The word niti means roughly "the wise conduct of life." Western civilization must endure a certain shame in realizing that no precise equivalent of the term is found in English, French, Latin, or Greek. Many words are therefore necessary to explain what niti is, though the idea, once grasped, is clear, important, and satisfying."
41. Baxter (1992), p. 356.
42. Allan (1991), p. 39.
43. Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (AD 127–200), Shipu xu 詩譜序.
44. A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 1–4. ISBN   0-691-00326-2
45. "Chinese philosophy" Archived 2 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Encyclopædia Britannica, online
46. Lin, Liang-Hung; Ho, Yu-Ling (2009). "Confucian dynamism, culture and ethical changes in Chinese societies – a comparative study of China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong". The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 20 (11): 2402–2417. doi:10.1080/09585190903239757. ISSN   0958-5192. S2CID   153789769. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
47. see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957 , p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003 , p. 68; MacDonell 2004 , pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
48. Sanujit Ghose (2011). "Religious Developments in Ancient India Archived 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine " in Ancient History Encyclopedia.
49. Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BC over a period of several centuries. Flood 1996 , p. 37
50. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 399. ISBN   978-0-8239-3179-8. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
51. T. R. S. Sharma; June Gaur; Sahitya Akademi (New Delhi, Inde). (2000). Ancient Indian Literature: An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. p. 137. ISBN   978-81-260-0794-3. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
52. "Ramayana | Summary, Characters, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
53. Lutgendorf, Philip (1991). The Life of a Text. University of California Press. p. 1.
54. Chadwick, John (1967). The Decipherment of Linear B (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN   978-1-107-69176-6. "The glimpse we have suddenly been given of the account books of a long-forgotten people..."
55. Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1956). Documents in Mycenaean Greek. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxix. ISBN   978-1-107-50341-0. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
56. Croally, Neil; Hyde, Roy (2011). Classical Literature: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN   978-1136736629. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
57. Wilson, Nigel (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 366. ISBN   978-1136788000. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
58. Romilly, Jacqueline de (1985). A Short History of Greek Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. ISBN   978-0226143125. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
59. Graziosi, Barbara (2002). Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN   978-0521809665. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
60. Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hanna (1996). The Odyssey Re-formed. Cornell University Press. ISBN   978-0801483356. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
61. Latacz, Joachim (1996). Homer, His Art and His World. University of Michigan Press. ISBN   978-0472083534. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
62. Too, Yun Lee (2010). The Idea of the Library in the Ancient World. OUP Oxford. p. 86. ISBN   978-0199577804. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
63. MacDonald, Dennis R. (1994). Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey, Plato, and the Acts of Andrew. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN   978-0195358629. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
64. Aristophanes: Butts K.J.Dover (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, Intro. p. x.
65. Frei 2001, p. 6.
66. Romer 2008, p. 2 and fn.3.
67. Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 134. ISBN   978-0-19-285343-1.
68. Duckworth, George Eckel. The nature of Roman comedy: a study in popular entertainment. Archived 4 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. p. 3. Web. 15 October 2011.
69. Donner, Fred (2010). Muhammad and the Believers: at the Origins of Islam . London: Harvard University Press. pp.  153–154. ISBN   978-0-674-05097-6.
70. "الوثائقية تفتح ملف "اللغة العربية"". الجزيرة الوثائقية (in Arabic). 8 September 2019. Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
71. "Western literature - Medieval literature". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
72. Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge University Press, 1980
73. Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of the Novel. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996, rept. 1997, p. 1. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
74. Polenz, Peter von. (1991). Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart: I. Einführung, Grundbegriffe, Deutsch in der frühbürgerlichen Zeit (in German). New York/Berlin: Gruyter, Walter de GmbH.
75. Thomas Christensen (2007). "Did East Asian Printing Traditions Influence the European Renaissance?". Arts of Asia Magazine (to appear). Retrieved 18 October 2006.
76. Thomas Franklin Carter, The Invention of Printing in China and its Spread Westward, The Ronald Press, NY 2nd ed. 1955, pp. 176–178
77. L. S. Stavrianos (1998) [1970]. A Global History: From Prehistory to the 21st Century (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN   978-0-13-923897-0.
78. Clapham, Michael, "Printing" in A History of Technology, Vol 2. From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution, edd. Charles Singer et al. (Oxford 1957), p. 377. Cited from Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change (Cambridge University, 1980).
79. "Court: Institutionalizing English Literature". oldsite.english.ucsb.edu. Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
80. "Women and Literature". www.ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
81. Saturday Review. Saturday Review. 1876. pp. 771ff. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
82. Hart, Kathleen (2004). Revolution and Women's Autobiography in Nineteenth-century France. Rodopi. p. 91.
83. Lewis, Linda M. (2003). Germaine de Staël, George Sand, and the Victorian Woman Artist. University of Missouri Press. p. 48.
84. Eisler, Benita (8 June 2018). "'George Sand' Review: Monstre Sacré". WSJ. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
85. Thomson, Patricia (July 1972). "George Sand and English Reviewers: The First Twenty Years". Modern Language Review . 67 (3): 501–516. doi:10.2307/3726119. JSTOR   3726119.
86. Forsas-Scott, Helena (1997). Swedish Women's Writing 1850-1995. London: The Athlone Press. p. 63. ISBN   0485910039.
87. ...remains the most translated Italian book and, after the Bible, the most widely read... by Francelia Butler, Children's Literature, Yale University Press, 1972.
88. Nikolajeva, María, ed. (1995). Aspects and Issues in the History of Children's Literature. Greenwood. ISBN   978-0-313-29614-7. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
89. Lyons, Martyn. 2011. Books: a living history. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
90. Sullivan, Patrick (1 January 2002). ""Reception Moments," Modern Literary Theory, and the Teaching of Literature". Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. 45 (7): 568–577. JSTOR   40012241.
91. Matthew Schneider-Mayerson, "Popular Fiction Studies: The Advantages of a New Field". Studies in Popular Culture, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Fall 2010), pp. 21-3
92. Boyd, William. "A short history of the short story". Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
93. "The Nobel Prize in Literature". nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019.
94. John Sutherland (13 October 2007). "Ink and Spit". Guardian Unlimited Books. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved 13 October 2007.
95. Oebel, Guido (2001). So-called "Alternative FLL-Approaches". Norderstedt: GRIN Verlag. ISBN   9783640187799. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
96. Makin, Michael; Kelly, Catriona; Shepher, David; de Rambures, Dominique (1989). Discontinuous Discourses in Modern Russian Literature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 122. ISBN   978-1349198511.
97. Cullingford, Cedric (1998). Children's Literature and its Effects. London: A&C Black. p. 5. ISBN   0304700924.
98. Hogan 2011, p. 10.
99. Hogan 2011, p. 11.
100. Damon, William; Lerner, Richard; Renninger, Ann; Sigel, Irving (2006). Handbook of Child Psychology, Child Psychology in Practice. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 90. ISBN   0471272876.
101. Paris 1986, p. 61.
102. Paris 1986, p. 25.
103. Nezami, S.R.A. (February 2012). "The use of figures of speech as a literary device—a specific mode of expression in English literature". Language in India. 12 (2): 659–.^{[ dead link ‍]}
104. Riches, John (2022) [2000]. "The Bible in high and popular culture". The Bible: a Very Short Introduction. Volume 14 in Very Short Introductions Series (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2021). p. 115. ISBN   978-0198863335. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022. In its various translations, [the Bible] has had a formative influence on the language, the literature, the art, the music of all the major European and North American cultures. It continues to influence popular culture in films, novels, and music.
105. "Islamic arts - Islamic literatures". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
106. Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 134. ISBN   978-0-19-285343-1.
107. "Hinduism - Vernacular literatures". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
108. "The King James Translation of the New Testament | Religious Studies Center".
109. "When the King Saved God". Vanity Fair . 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
110. "Why I want all our children to read the King James Bible". The Guardian . 20 May 2012. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
111. "poetry, n." Oxford English Dictionary. OUP. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2014.(subscription required)
112. Preminger 1993, p. 938.
113. Preminger 1993, p. 939.
114. Preminger 1993, p. 981.
115. Preminger 1993, p. 979.
116. Lipsky, Abram (1908). "Rhythm in Prose". The Sewanee Review. 16 (3): 277–289. JSTOR   27530906.(subscription required)
117. Ross, Trevor (1996). "The Emergence of "Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth Century."" (PDF). ELH. 63 (2): 398. doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0019. S2CID   170813833. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
118. Finnegan, Ruth H. (1977). Oral poetry: its nature, significance, and social context. Indiana University Press. p. 66.
119. Magoun, Francis P. Jr. (1953). "Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry". Speculum. 28 (3): 446–467. doi:10.2307/2847021. JSTOR   2847021. S2CID   162903356.(subscription required)
120. Alison Booth; Kelly J. Mays. "Glossary: P". LitWeb, the Norton Introduction to Literature Studyspace. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
121. Eliot T.S. 'Poetry & Prose: The Chapbook. Poetry Bookshop: London, 1921.
122. For discussion of the basic categorical issues see ( Preminger 1993 , "Narrative Poetry").
123. Graff, Richard (2005). "Prose versus Poetry in Early Greek Theories of Style". Rhetorica. 23 (4): 303–335. doi:10.1525/rh.2005.23.4.303. JSTOR   10.1525/rh.2005.23.4.303. S2CID   144730853.(subscription required)
124. "Literature", Encyclopaedia Britannica. online
125. Sommerville, C. J. (1996). The News Revolution in England: Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information. Oxford: OUP. p. 18.
126. "Essay on Romance", Prose Works volume vi, p. 129, quoted in "Introduction" to Walter Scott's Quentin Durward, ed. Susan Maning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, p. xxv. Romance should not be confused with Harlequin Romance.
127. Doody (1996), p. 15.
128. "The Novel". A Guide to the Study of Literature: A Companion Text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature. Brooklyn College. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
129. Goody 2006, p. 19.
130. Goody 2006, p. 20.
131. Goody 2006, p. 29.
132. Franco Moretti, ed. (2006). "The Novel in Search of Itself: A Historical Morphology". The Novel, Volume 2: Forms and Themes. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. 31. ISBN   978-0-691-04948-9.
133. Antrim, Taylor (2010). "In Praise of Short". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
134. "What's the definition of a "novella," "novelette," etc.?". Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America . Archived from the original on 19 March 2009.
135. Boyd, William. "A short history of the short story". Prospect Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 July 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
136. Colibaba, Ştefan (2010). "The Nature of the Short Story: Attempts at Definition" (PDF). Synergy. 6 (2): 220–230. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
137. Susan B. Neuman; Linda B. Gambrell, eds. (2013). Quality Reading Instruction in the Age of Common Core Standards. International Reading Association. p. 46. ISBN   978-0872074965. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
138. Cuddon 1998, p. 472.
139. Elam, Kier (1980). The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama . London and New York: Methuen. p.  98. ISBN   978-0-416-72060-0.
140. Cody, Gabrielle H. (2007). The Columbia Encyclopedia of Modern Drama (Volume 1 ed.). New York City: Columbia University Press. p. 271.
141. "Definition of copyright". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
142. "Definition of Copyright". Merriam-Webster . Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
143. Nimmer on Copyright, vol. 2, § 8.01.
144. "Intellectual property", Black's Law Dictionary, 10th ed. (2014).
145. "Understanding Copyright and Related Rights" (PDF). www.wipo.int. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
146. Stim, Rich (27 March 2013). "Copyright Basics FAQ". The Center for Internet and Society Fair Use Project. Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 June 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
147. Daniel A. Tysver. "Works Unprotected by Copyright Law". Bitlaw. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
148. Lee A. Hollaar. "Legal Protection of Digital Information". p. Chapter 1: An Overview of Copyright, Section II.E. Ideas Versus Expression. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
149. The Statute of Anne 1710 and the Literary Copyright Act 1842 used the term "book". However, since 1911 the statutes have referred to literary works.
150. "Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988". legislation.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
151. "University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press" [1916]^{[ full citation needed ]}
152. Agency for Cultural Affairs. 環太平洋パートナーシップ協定の法律） (PDF) (in Japanese). Agency for Cultural Affairs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
153. Cuddon 1998, pp. 118–122, "Censorship".
154. "About Banned & Challenged Books". ala.org. 25 October 2016. Archived from the original on 8 April 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
155. Nabokov, pp. 55, 57^{[ full citation needed ]}
156. Ulysses has been called "the most prominent landmark in modernist literature", a work where life's complexities are depicted with "unprecedented, and unequalled, linguistic and stylistic virtuosity". The New York Times guide to essential knowledge, 3d ed. (2011), p. 126.
157. John Stock; Kealey Rigden (15 October 2013). "Man Booker 2013: Top 25 literary prizes". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
158. "Facts on the Nobel Prize in Literature". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2014.

Bibliography

• Allan, Sarah (1991). The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China. SUNY Press. ISBN   978-0-7914-0460-7.
• Baxter, William H. (1992). A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN   978-3-11-012324-1.
• Cuddon, J. A. (1998) [1977]. C.E. Preston (ed.). A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (4th rev. ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN   0-631-20271-4.
• Eagleton, Terry (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction (Anniversary, 2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN   978-1-4051-7921-8.
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism . Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-43878-0.
• Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell companion to Hinduism. Oxford: Blackwell Publ. ISBN   1-4051-3251-5.
• Hogan, P. Colm (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Foster, John Lawrence (2001). Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. xx. ISBN   978-0-292-72527-0.
• Frei, Peter (2001). "Persian Imperial Authorization: A Summary". In Watts, James (ed.). Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 6. ISBN   9781589830158.
• Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral . Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-33794-6.
• Goody, Jack (2006). "From Oral to Written: An Anthropological Breakthrough in Storytelling". In Franco Moretti (ed.). The Novel, Volume 1: History, Geography, and Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. 18. ISBN   978-0-691-04947-2.
• Jacobs, Joseph (1888). The earliest English version of the Fables of Bidpai.
• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN   978-81-208-2000-5.
• Paris, B.J. (1986). Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. Cranbury: Associated University Press.
• Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics . US: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-02123-2.
• Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, C. A. (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-01958-1.
• Romer, Thomas (2008). "Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity" (PDF). Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 8, article 15: 2–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
• Ryder, Arthur W. (transl) (1925). The Panchatantra. University of Chicago Press. ISBN   81-7224-080-5.

Further reading

Encyclopedias

• Baldick, Chris (2015). The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Online Version) (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0191783234.
• Greene, Roland; et al., eds. (2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-15491-6.
• Merriam Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Springfield, Ma: Merriam-Webster. 1995. ISBN   0-87779-042-6.

Other

• Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The Narrative Modes: Techniques of the Short Story. Cambridge: Brewer. An overview of several hundred short stories.
• Gillespie, Gerald (January 1967). "Novella, nouvelle, novella, short novel? — A review of terms". Neophilologus. 51 (1): 117–127. doi:10.1007/BF01511303. S2CID   162102536.
• MAZZEO, T. J. (2012). Some Caveats about Postulating a Regency Literature. Keats-Shelley Journal, 61, 57–64. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24396035
• Wheeler, L. Kip. "Periods of Literary History" (PDF). Carson-Newman University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 March 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2014. Brief summary of major periods in literary history of the Western tradition.

External links

• Project Gutenberg Online Library
• Internet Book List similar to IMDb but for books (archived 7 February 2007)
• Digital eBook Collection – Internet Archive