Writing process

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Manual writing with a pen on paper GelPen stub.jpg
Manual writing with a pen on paper

A writing process describes a sequence of physical and mental actions that people take as they produce any kind of text. These actions nearly universally involve tools for physical or digital inscription: e.g., chisels, pencils, brushes, chalk, dyes, keyboards, touchscreens, etc.; these tools all have particular affordances that shape writers' processes. [1] Writing processes are highly individuated and task-specific; they often involve other kinds of activities that are not usually thought of as writing per se (talking, drawing, reading, browsing, etc.). [2]

Contents

Historical and contemporary perspectives

In 1972, Donald M. Murray published a brief manifesto titled "Teach Writing as a Process Not Product", in which he argued that English teachers' conventional training in literary criticism caused them to hold students' work to unhelpful standards of highly polished "finished writing". [3] Teachers, he explained, ought to focus less on correcting students' written products and focus more on involving students in "discovery through language", which Murray believed for "most writers most of the time" involved a process: i.e., stages of "pre-writing, writing and rewriting". [3] Though Murray was not alone in advocating process-based instruction, this manifesto is regarded [4] as a landmark vocalization of the differences between process and product orientations in the teaching of writing. Within a decade, Maxine Hairston was to observe that the teaching of writing had undergone a transformation in moving from a focus on written products to writing processes. [5]

These categories were theorized more fully in subsequent scholarship. For example, pre-writing was defined by Project English experimental researcher D. Gordon Rohman as the "sort of 'thinking' [that] precedes writing" and the "activity of mind which brings forth and develops ideas, plans, designs". [6] According to Rohman, writing begins "at the point where the 'writing idea' is ready for the words and the page". [6] Even today, much "process-based" teaching has continued to broadly conceptualize writing processes along these three phases. [7] Some have linked this three-stage process to the five canons of rhetoric: pre-writing to invention and arrangement, writing to style, revising to delivery and sometimes memory. [8]

While contemporary research on writing processes still accepts that some kind of process is necessarily involved in producing any written text, it now collectively endorses "the fundamental idea that no codifiable or generalizable writing process exists or could exist". [9] In this view, "writing processes are historically dynamic – not psychic states, cognitive routines, or neutral social relationships". [10] [11] In terms of "pre-writing" for instance, writing processes often begin long before any visible documentable work or easily categorizable steps are observable. [12] From the contemporary perspective of composition studies, it is thus inaccurate to assume that any authentic writing process (i.e., one not contrived as part of a school assignment or laboratory setting) necessarily involves a linear sequence of "stages". [13] Rather different kinds of activities emerge as overlapping parts of a complex whole or parts of a repeating process that can be repeated multiple times throughout anyone's process of composing a particular document. For example, writers routinely discover that editorial changes trigger brainstorming and a change of purpose; that drafting is temporarily interrupted to correct a misspelling; or that the boundary between pre-writing and drafting is less than obvious.

Approaches to process

The writing process has been described by composition scholars in a variety of ways with attention to "developmental, expressive, and social" elements. [14]

Cognitive process theory of writing (Flower–Hayes model)

Overview of cognitive model

Linda Flower (a composition theorist known in the field of cognitive rhetoric) and John R. Hayes extended Bitzer's rhetorical situation and developed a set of heuristics that framed the writing process as a series of rhetorical problems to be solved. The heuristics focus on the generation and the structuring of ideas. Writers should choose goals with built-in guidelines that lead their content into certain directions. While generating ideas, four viable techniques come to play. These are: to write ideas without editing or filtering, to play out scenarios discussing the topic, to generate analogies, and to rest on ideas. When a writer is looking to push their ideas they should try to find cue words to the complex ideas together, to teach the ideas to another person, to tree ideas into classifications of organization, and to read their own writing as if they'd never seen it before. The last tool is to write for a specific audience by finding common ground with them. [15]

Flower and Hayes further developed the cognitive model in "The Cognition of Discovery" by observing writers in order to learn how they generate meaning. They outlined the rhetorical problem as a list of what a writer may address or consider. In doing so, they created a model for the rhetorical problem that can be split up into two main categories: The rhetorical situation and the writer's own goals. The rhetorical situation is what motivates a writer to create ideas. The writer's own goals are instrumental to how ideas are formed. The rhetorical situation is further split into the purpose of the writing, and who will be reading it. The writer's own goals are split into how the reader is affected, the persona the writer uses, the meaning the writer can create, and implementation of writing conventions. [16]

They came to three results from their study, which suggests that good writers envelop the three following characteristics when solving their rhetorical problems:

  1. Good writers respond to all of the rhetorical problems.
  2. Good writers build their problem representation by creating a particularly rich network of goals for affecting a reader; and
  3. Good writers represent the problem not only in more breadth but in more depth. [16]

Flower and Hayes suggest that composition instructors need to consider showing students how "to explore and define their own problems, even within the constraints of an assignment". [17] They believe that "writers discover what they want to do by insistently, energetically exploring the entire problem before them and building for themselves a unique image of the problem they want to solve."

Historical approaches to composition and process

A historical response to process is concerned primarily with the manner in which writing has been shaped and governed by historical and social forces. These forces are dynamic and contextual, and therefore render any static iteration of process unlikely.

Notable scholars that have conducted this type of inquiry include media theorists such as Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, Gregory Ulmer, and Cynthia Selfe. Much of McLuhan's work, for example, centered around the impact of written language on oral cultures, degrees to which various media are accessible and interactive, and the ways in which electronic media determine communication patterns. His evaluation of technology as a shaper of human societies and psyches indicates a strong connection between historical forces and literacy practices.

Criticism of cognitive model

Patricia Bizzell (a professor with a Ph.D in English and former President of Rhetoric Society of America) argues that even though educators may have an understanding of "how" the writing process occurs, educators should not assume that this knowledge can answer the question "about 'why' the writer makes certain choices in certain situations", since writing is always situated within a discourse community. [18] She discusses how the Flower and Hayes model relies on what is called the process of "translating ideas into visible language". [18] This process occurs when students "treat written English as a set of containers into which we pour meaning". [18] Bizzell contends that this process "remains the emptiest box" in the cognitive process model, since it de-contextualizes the original context of the written text, negating the original. [18] She argues, "Writing does not so much contribute to thinking as provide an occasion for thinking." [18]

Social model of writing process

"The aim of collaborative learning helps students to find more control in their learning situation. [19]

The social model of writing relies on the relationship between the writers and readers for the purpose of creating meaning. "Writers seldom write exactly what they mean and readers seldom interpret a writer's words exactly as the writer intended." [20]

Even grammar has a social turn in writing: "It may be that to fully account for the contempt that some errors of usage arouse, we will have to understand better than we do the relationship between language, order, and those deep psychic forces that perceived linguistic violations seem to arouse in otherwise amiable people". [21] So one cannot simply say a thing is right or wrong. There is a difference of degrees attributed to social forces. [22]

Expressivist process theory of writing

According to the expressivist theory, the process of writing is centered on the writer's transformation. This involves the writer changing in the sense that voice and identity are established and the writer has a sense of his or her self. In expressivist pedagogy, writing is a process used to create meaning. An author’s sense of self is emphasized for bringing social change. [23] This theory became popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Several scholars have noted that the expressivist process is incredibly valuable when it comes to writer’s forming their own identities within writing, Michele Zugnoni and Anne Harrington in particular. Zugnoni [24] discusses the ways in which including self-reflection and self-expression within writing is incredibly helpful in allowing first-generation students to build a sense of individuality and purpose. [24] Zugnoni had female, first-generation students use self-reflection in writing, allowing for this group of students to create a sense of individuality from writing freely. In the book “Writing With Elbow,” Herrington’s chapter, titled “Gone Fishin’: Rendering and the Uses of Personal Experience in Writing,” [25] states that the exclusion of personal experience in an academic writing assignment disregards the value of a writer’s experiences. [25]

Expressivist process theory and academic writing complement one another, [26] that academic inquiry focuses on discovery wherein expressivism is the discovery and analysis of your personal experiences. It is discussed that the act of writing about one’s personal experience not only helps to make sense of those experiences but allows them to build their voice, Bruce Ballenger stating his own students had told him that writing had been put into a new light when allowed to express their personal experiences. [27]

According to Richard Fulkerson's article "Four Philosophies of Composition", the focus of expressivism is for writers to have "... an interesting, credible, honest, and personal voice". Moreover, proponents of the expressivist process view this theory as a way for students to become fulfilled and healthy both emotionally and mentally. Those who teach this process often focus on journaling and other classroom activities to focus on student self-discovery and at times, low-stakes writing. Prominent figures in the field include John Dixon, Ken Macrorie, Lou Kelly, Donald C. Stewart and Peter Elbow.

Autistic autobiographies

As appealing as document sharing may be for students with autism in particular, [28] being able to contextualize one's life story in the context of their disability may prove the most powerful expression of the overall writing process. Rose illustrates [28] that creating narrative identity in a conventional sense is quite difficult for autistic students because of their challenges with interpersonal communication. The narratives of autistic students can sometimes be troubling to neurotypical peers with whom they share their work, as Rose notes in quoting autistic autobiographer Dawn Price-Hughes: "Sometimes reaching out and communicating isn't easy–it can bring sadness and regret. Some of my family and friends, after reading the manuscript for this book, were deeply saddened to learn how I experienced my world."

Rose points to the well-known work of Temple Grandin and Donna Williams as examples of autistic autobiographies and analogizes toward the usefulness of women's autobiographies championed by Susan Stanford Friedman to show women's inter-connectivity, suggesting the same can be learned through autistic autobiographies. She writes that such works can minimize the "pathologization (the treatment of a health or behaviour condition as if it were a medical condition) of difference" which can easily occur between autistic students. Also, neurotypical peers can be broken down by such autobiographies. As Rose directly says, "I argue here that awareness of the relationality of autistic life writing, and the recognition of its corollary status as testimonio and attention to the material relations of the production of these texts is particularly useful in assessing their social significance."

From a rhetorical perspective the use for students with disabilities (not just autistic students) seems to be promising. It would appear to foster a sense of a community among students with disabilities and helping these voices be brought in from the margins similarly to the way Mike Rose refers to students from disadvantaged backgrounds and their needs in Lives on the Boundary .

Editing

Manual editing of a printed document by directly writing annotations and remarks on paper Paper Editing.jpg
Manual editing of a printed document by directly writing annotations and remarks on paper

Editing operates on several levels. The lowest level, often called line editing, is the stage in the writing process where the writer makes changes in the text to correct errors—such as spelling, subject/verb agreement, verb tense consistency, point of view consistency, mechanical errors, word choice, and word usage (there, their or they're) [29] —and fine-tune his or her style. Having revised the draft for content, the writer's task is now to make changes that will improve the communication with the reader. Depending on the genre, the writer may choose to adhere to the conventions of Standard English. These conventions are still being developed and the rulings on controversial issues may vary depending on the source. For example, Strunk and White's Elements of Style , first published in 1918, is considered by some [30] to be an authority on stylistic conventions but has been derided by linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum as "stupid". [31] [32] An electronic resource is the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL), where writers may search a specific issue to find an explanation of grammatical and mechanical conventions. [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

Free writing is traditionally regarded as a prewriting technique practiced in academic environments, in which a person writes continuously for a set period of time with limited concern for rhetoric, conventions, and mechanics, sometimes working from a specific prompt provided by a teacher. While free writing often produces raw, or even unusable material, it can help writers overcome writing blocks and build confidence by allowing them to practice text-production phases of the writing process without the fear of censure. Some writers even use the technique to collect initial thoughts and ideas on a topic, often as a preliminary to formal writing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Draft document</span> Preliminary stage of a written or visual work

In the context of written composition, drafting refers to any process of generating preliminary versions of a written work. Drafting happens at any stage of the writing process as writers generate trial versions of the text they're developing. At the phrasal level, these versions may last less than a second, as writers compose and then delete trial sentences; as fully developed attempts that have reached the end of a stage of usefulness, draft documents may last for perpetuity as saved "versions" or as paper files in archives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cognitive rhetoric</span>

Cognitive rhetoric refers to an approach to rhetoric, composition, and pedagogy as well as a method for language and literary studies drawing from, or contributing to, cognitive science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Composition studies</span>

Composition studies is the professional field of writing, research, and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college level in the United States.

Patricia Bizzell is a professor of English, emerita, and former Chairperson of the English Department at the College of the Holy Cross, United States, where she taught from 1978 to 2019. She founded and directed the Writer's Workshop, a peer tutoring facility, and a writing-across-the-curriculum program. She directed the College Honors and English Honors programs and taught first-year composition, rhetoric and public speaking, nineteenth-century American literature, and women's literature. A scholar and writer, Bizzell has authored or co-authored half a dozen books, written dozens of articles and book chapters, composed more than a dozen book reviews and review essays, and presented a large number of papers at academic conferences. Bizzell is the 2008 winner of the CCCC Exemplar Award, and former president of Rhetoric Society of America.

Linda Flower is a composition theorist. She is best known for her emphasis on cognitive rhetoric, but has more recently published in the field of service learning. Flower currently serves Carnegie Mellon University as a professor of rhetoric.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">First-year composition</span> Introductory core curriculum writing course in US colleges and universities

First-year composition is an introductory core curriculum writing course in US colleges and universities. This course focuses on improving students' abilities to write in a university setting and introduces students to writing practices in the disciplines and professions. These courses are traditionally required of incoming students, thus the previous name, "Freshman Composition." Scholars working within the field of composition studies often have teaching first-year composition (FYC) courses as the practical focus of their scholarly work.

The process theory of composition is a field of composition studies that focuses on writing as a process rather than a product. Based on Janet Emig's breakdown of the writing process, the process is centered on the idea that students determine the content of the course by exploring the craft of writing using their own interests, language, techniques, voice, and freedom, and where students learn what people respond to and what they don't. Classroom activities often include peer work where students themselves are teaching, reviewing, brainstorming, and editing.

Feminist theory in composition studies examines how gender, language, and cultural studies affect the teaching and practice of writing. It challenges the traditional assumptions and methods of composition studies and proposes alternative approaches that are informed by feminist perspectives. Feminist theory in composition studies covers a range of topics, such as the history and development of women’s writing, the role of gender in rhetorical situations, the representation and identity of writers, and the pedagogical implications of feminist theory for writing instruction. Feminist theory in composition studies also explores how writing can be used as a tool for empowerment, resistance, and social change. Feminist theory in composition studies emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a response to the male-dominated field of composition and rhetoric. It has been influenced by various feminist movements and disciplines, such as second-wave feminism, poststructuralism, psychoanalysis, critical race theory, and queer theory. Feminist theory in composition studies has contributed to the revision of traditional rhetorical concepts, the recognition of diverse voices and genres, the promotion of collaborative and ethical communication, and the integration of personal and political issues in writing.

Jimmie Wayne Corder was a scholar of rhetoric.

Revision is a process in writing of rearranging, adding, or removing paragraphs, sentences, or words. Writers may revise their writing after a draft is complete or during the composing process. Revision involves many of the strategies known generally as editing but also can entail larger conceptual shifts of purpose and audience as well as content. Within the writing process, revision comes once one has written a draft to work with, so that one can re-see and improve it, iteratively. Working at both deeper and more surface levels a writer can increase the power of the text.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhetorical situation</span> Context of a rhetorical event

The rhetorical situation is an event that consists of an issue, an audience, and a set of constraints. A rhetorical situation arises from a given context or exigence. An article by Lloyd Bitzer introduced the model of the rhetorical situation in 1968, which was later challenged and modified by Richard E. Vatz (1973) and Scott Consigny (1974). More recent scholarship has further redefined the model to include more expansive views of rhetorical operations and ecologies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy</span>

Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy encompass a wide range of interdisciplinary fields centered on the instruction of writing. Noteworthy to the discipline is the influence of classical Ancient Greece and its treatment of rhetoric as a persuasive tool. Derived from the Greek work for public speaking, rhetoric's original concern dealt primarily with the spoken word. In the treatise Rhetoric, Aristotle identifies five Canons of the field of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Since its inception in the spoken word, theories of rhetoric and composition have focused primarily on writing

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Visual rhetoric and composition</span>

The study and practice of visual rhetoric took a more prominent role in the field of composition studies towards the end of the twentieth century and onward. Proponents of its inclusion in composition typically point to the increasingly visual nature of society, and the increasing presence of visual texts. Literacy, they argue, can no longer be limited only to written text and must also include an understanding of the visual.

Collaborative pedagogy stems from the process theory of rhetoric and composition. Collaborative pedagogy believes that students will better engage with writing, critical thinking, and revision if they engage with others. Collaborative pedagogy pushes back against the Current-Traditional model of writing, as well as other earlier theories explaining rhetoric and composition; earlier theories of writing, especially current-traditional, emphasizes writing as a final product. In contrast, collaborative pedagogy rejects the notion that students think, learn, and write in isolation. Collaborative pedagogy strives to maximize critical thinking, learning, and writing skills through interaction and interpersonal engagement. Collaborative pedagogy also connects to the broader theory of collaborative learning, which encompasses other disciplines including, but not limited to, education, psychology, and sociology.

Martin Nystrand is an American composer and education theorist. He is Louise Durham Mead Professor Emeritus in the Department of English at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and Professor Emeritus of Education at the Wisconsin Center for Education Research.

In a 1991 keynote address to the Modern Language Association titled "Arts of the Contact Zone", Mary Louise Pratt introduced the concept of "the contact zone." She articulated, "I use this term to refer to social spaces where cultures meet, clash and grapple with each other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power, such as colonialism, slavery, or their aftermaths as they lived out in many parts of the world today". Pratt described a site for linguistic and cultural encounters, wherein power is negotiated and struggle occurs. Although when introduced this term was in the context of literacy and literary theories, the term has been appropriated to conversations across the humanities and has been used in the context of feminist theory, critical race theory, postcolonial theory and in discussions of teaching and pedagogy. The contact zone is similar to other concepts that address relationality and contiguity such as positionality, standpoint theory, perspectivism, intersectionality, and relationality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist rhetoric</span> Practice of rhetoric

Feminist rhetoric emphasizes the narratives of all demographics, including women and other marginalized groups, into the consideration or practice of rhetoric. Feminist rhetoric does not focus exclusively on the rhetoric of women or feminists, but instead prioritizes the feminist principles of inclusivity, community, and equality over the classic, patriarchal model of persuasion that ultimately separates people from their own experience. Seen as the act of producing or the study of feminist discourses, feminist rhetoric emphasizes and supports the lived experiences and histories of all human beings in all manner of experiences. It also redefines traditional delivery sites to include non-traditional locations such as demonstrations, letter writing, and digital processes, and alternative practices such as rhetorical listening and productive silence. According to author and rhetorical feminist Cheryl Glenn in her book Rhetorical Feminism and This Thing Called Hope (2018), "rhetorical feminism is a set of tactics that multiplies rhetorical opportunities in terms of who counts as a rhetor, who can inhabit an audience, and what those audiences can do." Rhetorical feminism is a strategy that counters traditional forms of rhetoric, favoring dialogue over monologue and seeking to redefine the way audiences view rhetorical appeals.

Janice M. Lauer Rice was an American scholar of composition, rhetoric, and linguistics. She was a founding member of the Rhetoric Society of America. She founded one of the first doctoral programs in rhetoric and composition at Purdue University in 1980. The Lauer Series in Rhetoric and Composition from Parlor Press is named in her honor, as well as the Rhetoric Society of America's Janice Lauer Fund for Graduate Student Support and the Purdue Foundation Janice M. Lauer Dissertation Award.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multimodal pedagogy</span>

Multimodal pedagogy is an approach to the teaching of writing that implements different modes of communication. Multimodality refers to the use of visual, aural, linguistic, spatial, and gestural modes in differing pieces of media, each necessary to properly convey the information it presents.

References

  1. ↑ Haas, Christina (1996). Writing Technology: Studies on the Materiality of Literacy. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Mahwah, NJ.
  2. ↑ Clayson, Ashley (2018). "Distributed Cognition and Embodiment in Text Planning: A Situated Study of Collaborative Writing in the Workplace". Written Communication. 35 (2): 155–181. doi:10.1177/0741088317753348. S2CID   148905682.
  3. 1 2 Donald M. Murray, "Teach Writing as a Process Not Product" The Leaflet (November 1972), rpt. in Cross-Talk in Comp Theory, 2nd ed., ed. Victor Villanueva, Urbana: NCTE, 2003.
  4. ↑ Anson, Chris. "Process Pedagogy and Its Legacy" (2014). Tate, Gary; Hessler, Brooke; Rupiper-Taggart, Amy; Schick, Kurt (eds.). A Guide to Composition Pedagogies (2nd ed.). Oxford UP. pp. 212–230 [216]. ISBN   9780199922161.
  5. ↑ Maxine Hairston, "The Winds of Change: Thomas Kuhn and the Revolution in the Teaching of Writing" CCC 33 (1982), pp. 76–88, rpt. in The Norton Book of Composition Studies, ed. Susan Miller, New York: Norton, 2009
  6. 1 2 Rohman, D. Gordon (1965). "Pre-Writing the Stage of Discovery in the Writing Process". College Composition and Communication. 16 (2): 106–112. doi:10.2307/354885. ISSN   0010-096X. JSTOR   354885.
  7. ↑ Donahue, Christiane and Theresa Lillis. (2014). "Models of Writing and Text Production". In Handbook of Writing and Text Production, Eva-Marie Jakobs & Daniel Perrin, Eds. De Gruyter. Mouton: 55–78 [60].
  8. ↑ "The Five Canons of Rhetoric" (PDF). University of Arkansas. Sam Walton College of Business. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  9. ↑ Kent, Thomas (1999). "Introduction". Post-Process Theory: Beyond the Writing-Process Paradigm. Thomas Kent, ed. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1–6 [1].
  10. ↑ Faigley, Lester. (1986) "Competing Theories of Process: A Critique and a Proposal". College English 48.6 527–542 [537].
  11. ↑ Stotsky, Sandra (1990). ""On Planning and Writing Plans -- Or Beware of Borrowed Theories!"". College Composition and Communication. 41 (1): 37–57. doi:10.2307/357882. JSTOR   357882.
  12. ↑ Reither, James A. (1985). "Writing and Knowing: Toward Redefining the Writing Process". College English. 47 (6): 620–628. doi:10.2307/377164. JSTOR   377164.
  13. ↑ Prior, Paul A. (1998). Writing/Disciplinarity: A Sociohistoric Account of Literate Activity in the Academy. Mahwah, NJ: Routledge. ISBN   0-8058-2296-8.
  14. ↑ Sperling, Melanie. (1998). "Process Theory of Writing". In Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and Scholarship in Contemporary Composition Studies.Mary Lynch Kennedy, ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press: 243–249 [247].
  15. ↑ Flower & Hayes 1977.
  16. 1 2 Flower & Hayes 1980.
  17. ↑ Flower & Hayes 1980, p. 30.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Bizzell, Patricia (1982). "Cognition, Convention, and Certainty: What We Need to Know About Writing" (PDF). Pre/Text. 3 (3): 213–243.
  19. ↑ Trimbur 2009.
  20. ↑ "Writing@CSU". writing.colostate.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  21. ↑ Williams 2009, p. 415.
  22. ↑ Williams 2009.
  23. ↑ Pola, M. (2007). "Expressivist Pedagogy in the High School English Classroom: A Handbook for Curricular Integration". S2CID   199764261.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  24. 1 2 Zugnoni, Michele (2019). "Encouraging Empowerment Through Expression: Creation of a Self-Reflective Writing Group for First-Generation College Students". ProQuest. ProQuest   2321064595.
  25. 1 2 Herrington, Anne (2002). "Gone Fishin'" (PDF). GONE FISHIN': Rendering and the Uses of Personal Experience in Writing. University Press of Colorado. pp. 223–238. doi:10.2307/j.ctt46nxbc.25. ISBN   978-0-87421-430-7. JSTOR   j.ctt46nxbc.25.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  26. ↑ Michaud, Michael (2019). "Composing a Career, from Expressivism to Essayism: A Conversation with Bruce Ballenger". Composition Forum.
  27. ↑ Michaud, Michael (2019). "Composing a Career, from Expressivism to Essayism: A Conversation with Bruce Ballenger". Composition Forum.
  28. 1 2 Rose, Irene. "Autistic Autobiography or Autistic Life Journal". Journal of Literary Disability 2.1 (2008): 44–54
  29. ↑ Hacker, Diana. (2009). A Writer's Reference (6th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN   978-0-312-59332-2. Archived 2010-04-06 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ↑ Roberts, Sam (2009-04-21). "'The Elements of Style' Turns 50". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2019-07-27.
  31. ↑ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (June 2010). "The land of the free and The Elements of Style" (PDF). English Today . 26 (2): 34–44. doi:10.1017/S0266078410000076. hdl: 20.500.11820/eb0c194a-4d95-4939-89cd-75eb83f083e3 . S2CID   145264789.
  32. ↑ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (17 April 2009). "50 years of stupid grammar advice". The Chronicle of Higher Education . 55 (32): B15–B16.
  33. ↑ "General Writing". The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). Purdue University, 2008. Web. Accessed on 26 December 2023. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/index.html.

Selected readings

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