Welfare state in the United Kingdom

Last updated

Pie chart of UK central government expenditure, 2009-10. Social Protection is shown in orange, health in red, education in grey, and personal services in light blue. The welfare state represents around two-thirds of total government spending. UKExpenditure.svg
Pie chart of UK central government expenditure, 2009–10. Social Protection is shown in orange, health in red, education in grey, and personal services in light blue. The welfare state represents around two-thirds of total government spending.

The welfare state of the United Kingdom began to evolve in the 1900s and early 1910s, and comprises expenditures by the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland intended to improve health, education, employment and social security. The British system has been classified as a liberal welfare state system. [1]

Contents

History

Before the official establishment of the modern welfare state, clear examples of social welfare existed to help the poor and vulnerable within British society. A key date in the welfare state's history is 1563; when Queen Elizabeth I's government encouraged the wealthier members of society to give to the poor, [2] by passing the Poor Act 1562.

The welfare state in the modern sense was anticipated by the Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws 1832 which found that the Poor Relief Act 1601 (a part of the English Poor laws) was subject to widespread abuse and promoted squalor, idleness and criminality in its recipients, compared to those who received private charity. Accordingly, the qualifications for receiving aid were tightened up, forcing many recipients to either turn to private charity or accept employment.

Opinions began to be changed late in the century by reports drawn up by men such as Seebohm Rowntree and Charles Booth into the levels of poverty in Britain. These reports indicated that in the massive industrial cities, between one-quarter and one-third of the population were living below the poverty line.

A 2022 study linked trade shocks during the first globalization (1870–1914) with increased support for a welfare state and reduced support for the Conservative Party. [3]

Liberal reforms

The Liberal Party launched the welfare state in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with a series of major welfare reforms in 1906–1914. [4] The reforms were greatly extended over the next forty years. [4]

The minimum wage was introduced in Great Britain in 1909 for certain low-wage industries and expanded to numerous industries, including farm labour, by 1920. However, by the 1920s, a new perspective was offered by reformers to emphasise the usefulness of family allowance targeted at low-income families was the alternative to relieving poverty without distorting the labour market. [5] [6] The trade unions and the Labour Party adopted this view. In 1945, family allowances were introduced; minimum wages faded from view.[ citation needed ]

The experience of almost total state control during the Second World War had encouraged the belief that the state might be able to solve problems in wide areas of national life. [7]

The Liberal government of 1906–1914 implemented welfare policies concerning three main groups in society: the old, the young and working people. [4]

YoungOldWorking
  • In 1906 local authorities were allowed to provide free school meals. [8]
  • The Children and Young Persons Act 1908 introduced a set of regulations that became known as the Children's Charter. This imposed severe punishments for neglecting or treating children cruelly. It was made illegal to sell cigarettes to children or send them out begging. Separate juvenile courts were set up, which sent children convicted of a crime to borstals (a forerunner to modern youth detention centres), instead of prison. [9]
  • In 1908 pensions were introduced for the over 70s. [10]
  • In 1909 Labour Exchanges were set up to help unemployed people find work. [11]
  • The National Insurance Act 1911 was passed, ensuring free medical treatment, and sick pay of 10 shillings a week for 26 weeks. [4] An estimated 13 million workers came to be compulsorily covered under this scheme. [12]

Beveridge Report and Labour

The aftermath of the First World War boosted demands for social reform, and led to a permanent increase in the role of the state in British society. The end of the war also brought a period of unemployment and poverty, particularly in northern industrial towns, that deepened into the Great Depression by the 1930s. [7]

During the war, the government became much more involved in people's lives via governmental organisation of the rationing of foodstuffs, clothing and fuel and extra milk and meals being given to expectant mothers and children. [7] The wartime coalition, and the introduction of family allowances. [13] Many people welcomed this government intervention and wanted it to go further. [7]

The Beveridge Report of 1942, (which identified five "Giant Evils" in society: squalor, ignorance, want, idleness and disease) essentially recommended a national, compulsory, flat rate insurance scheme which would combine unemployment, widows benefit, child benefit and retirement benefits into one central government support scheme. In regards to healthcare Beveridge preferred the contemporary healthcare system of voluntary and private hospitals "more than that of a taxpayer funded healthcare" [14] believing more people would access healthcare when they need it if they were voluntarily involved in their own healthcare. But it is key to note Beveridge still emphasised that healthcare should be accessible for everyone in the United Kingdom and that people should give what they can according to their means when receiving healthcare in voluntary hospitals. Beveridge himself was careful to emphasise that unemployment benefits should be held to a subsistence level, and after six months would be conditional on work or training, so as not to encourage abuse of the system. [15] That was however predicated on the concept of the "maintenance of employment" which meant ‘it should be possible to make unemployment of any individual for more than 26 weeks continuously a rare thing in normal times’ [15] and recognised that the imposition of a training condition would be impractical if the unemployed were numbered by the million. [15] After its victory in the 1945 general election, the Labour Party pledged to eradicate the Giant Evils, and undertook policy measures to provide for the people of the United Kingdom "from the cradle to the grave." While the original intention of the report was to abolish these Giant Evils, the implementation of these suggested policies to reduce income, health, and educational inequalities. [16] However, in reality the lack of full follow through of Beveridge recommended strategies meant that the Labour government did fail to 'abolish' poverty with their welfare reforms. [16]

Included among the laws passed were the National Assistance Act 1948, National Insurance Act 1946, and National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) Act 1946.

Impact

This policy resulted in increased expenditure and a widening of what was considered to be the state's responsibility. In addition to the central services of education, health, unemployment and sickness allowances, the welfare state also included the idea of increasing redistributive taxation, increasing regulation of industry, food, and housing (better safety regulations, weights and measures controls, etc.)

The foundation of the National Health Service (NHS) did not involve building new hospitals, but nationalisation of existing municipal provision and charitable foundations. The aim was not to substantially increase provision but to standardise care across the country; indeed William Beveridge believed that the overall cost of medical care would decrease, as people became healthier and so needed less treatment.

However, instead of falling, the cost of the NHS has risen by 4% annually on average due to an ageing population, [17] leading to a reduction in provision. Charges for dentures, and spectacles were introduced in 1951 by the same Labour government that had founded the NHS three years earlier, and prescription charges by the successive Conservative Government were introduced in 1952. [18] In 1988, free eye tests for all were abolished, although they are now free for the over-60s. [19]

After 1979, Margaret Thatcher had laid the post-war Keynesian consensus to rest, in favour of an Individualist and Monetarist Welfare policy, guided by the economy. This Thatcherite consensus was characterised by policies such as Privatisation, driven by her belief in Individualism and Competition. [20] Therefore, her main focus was to attempt to control public spending, privatisation, targeting and rising inequality, so much of the 1980s was focused on cutting public spending in the UK.

Policies differ in different regions of the United Kingdom, but the provision of a welfare state is still a basic principle of government policy in the United Kingdom today. The principle of health care "free at the point of use" became a central idea of the welfare state, which later Conservative governments, although critical of some aspects of the welfare state, did not reverse.

Welfare spending on poor people dropped by 25% under the United Kingdom government austerity programme, cuts to benefits that disabled people receive were significant, Personal Independence Payments and Employment and Support Allowance have both dropped by 10%. Over half of families living below the breadline have at least one relative with a disability. Cuts include, tax credits (£4.6bn), universal credit (£3.6bn), child benefit (£3.4bn), disability benefits (£2.8bn), Employment and Support Allowance and Incapacity Benefit (£2bn) and housing benefit (£2.3bn). Frank Field said, "A £37bn attack has been mounted on the living standards of many of our fellow citizens to such an extent that possibly millions struggle to keep on top of their rent, pay the bills and buy adequate food. Likewise, an unknown number are unable to clothe their children properly before sending them to school where all too many of these children not only rely on free school dinners as a cornerstone of their diet, but on breakfast and supper clubs as well." [21]

Expenditure

In the financial year 2014/15, state pensions were overwhelmingly the largest governmental welfare expense, costing £86,500,000,000 followed by housing benefit, which accounted for over £20,000,000,000 [22] Expenditure in 2015–16 on benefits included: £2,300,000,000 paid to unemployed people and £27,100,000,000 to people on low incomes, and £27,600,000,000 for personal tax credits. [23] [24]

UK Government welfare expenditure 2011–12 (percent)

  State pension (46%)
  Housing Benefit (11%)
  Disability Living Allowance (8%)
  Pension Credit (5%)
  Income Support (4%)
  Rent rebates (3%)
  Attendance allowance (3%)
  Jobseeker's Allowance (3%)
  Incapacity Benefit (3%)
  Council Tax Benefit (3%)
  Other (11%)

In 2023/24, it is expected that government health spending, which is the biggest element of public spending, will reach £176,200,000,000. [25] Other welfare expenses include education, which is predicted to reached £81,400,000,000, and state pensions, for which expenditure will be £124,300,000,000. [25]

UK Government welfare expenditure 2014–15 [22]
BenefitExpenditure (£bn)
State pension 86.5
Tax credits (Working tax credits and Child tax credits)29.7
Housing Benefit 23.5
Disability Living Allowance 15.4
Incapacity benefits14.1
Child benefit 11.6
Pension Credit 6.6
Attendance Allowance 5.4
Jobseeker's allowance 3.1
Income Support 2.6
Maternity and paternity pay2.4
Carer's allowance 2.3
Winter fuel payments2.1
War pensions0.8
Universal credit0.1
Other5.9
TOTALpounds 213.9

Criticisms

Conservative thinkers have debated the structural incompatibility between the liberal principles and welfare state's principles. Certain sectors of society have argued that the welfare state creates a disincentive for working and investment. [26] [27] Also suggesting that the welfare state at times does not eliminate the causes of individual contingencies and needs. [28] Economically, the net losers of the welfare state are often more against its values and role within society. [29]

In 2010, the Conservative-Lib Dem coalition government led by David Cameron argued for a reduction of welfare spending in the United Kingdom as part of their programme of austerity. [30] Government ministers have argued that a growing culture of welfare dependency is perpetuating welfare spending, and claim that a cultural change is required to reduce the welfare bill. [31] Public opinion in the UK appears to support a reduction in welfare spending, however commentators have suggested that negative public perceptions are founded on exaggerated assumptions about the proportion of spending on unemployment benefit and the level of benefit fraud. [32] [33]

Figures from the Department for Work and Pensions show that benefit fraud is thought to have cost taxpayers £1.2 billion during 2012–13, up 9% on the year before. [34] This was lower than the £1.5 billion of benefit underpayment due to error. [35] [ needs update ]

In some cases, relatives who bring up a child when the parents cannot bring up the child face sanctions and financial penalties, they can be left poor and homeless. [36] There are also widespread complaints from church groups and others that the UK welfare state does insufficient work to prevent poverty, deprivation even hunger. [37] In 2018, food bank usage in the UK reached its highest point on record, with the UK's national food bank provider, Trussel Trust, stating that welfare benefits do not cover basic living costs. The Trussel Trust's figures showed that 1,332,952 three-day emergency food supplies were delivered to people from March 2017 to March 2018. This represented a 13% increase from the previous year. [38]

In 2018 support for raising taxes to finance more provision on health, education and social benefits was the highest it had been since 2002 according to NatCen Social Research. Two-thirds of Labour supporters favoured tax rises and 53% of Conservatives also favoured that. [39]

In 2018 the House of Commons library estimated that by 2021, £37bn less would be spent on working-age social security than in 2010. Cuts to disability benefits, Personal Independence Payments (PIP) and employment and support allowance (ESA) are noteworthy, they will have fallen by 10%, since 2010. Over half of families with income below the breadline include at least one person with a disability. There are also cuts to tax credits Universal Credit child benefit disability benefits ESA and incapacity benefit and housing benefit. Alison Garnham of the Child Poverty Action Group said, "Cuts and freezes have taken family budgets to the bone as costs rise and there is more pain to come as the two-child limit for tax credits and universal credit, the bedroom tax, the benefit cap and the rollout of universal credit push families deeper into poverty." [21]

Social security payments in 2019 were the lowest they had been since the welfare state was started and food bank use had increased. The Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) found £73 per week, (which is standard for Universal Credit that 2.3 million people claim) amounted to 12.5% of median earnings. When unemployment benefit was introduced in 1948 it amounted to 20%. Millions of people in 2019 were "excluded from mainstream society, with the basic goods and amenities needed to survive let alone thrive increasingly out of their grip". The IPPR urged all parties to add an emergency £8.4bn into the welfare system, which has become harder than previous systems because debt deductions are made from payments, there is increasing underpayment and strict sanctions are applied. One in three universal credit claimants are working. [40]

Numerous negative consequences have been attributed to benefit sanctions imposed by the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), the UK Government department that runs the welfare state in the UK. These include "increased debt and rent arrears, food poverty, crime and worsening physical and mental health. [41] Statistics indicate that in the period of 2011 to 2015 benefit sanctions on people with mental health problems increased by 668%. 19,259 people with mental health problems had benefits stopped in the period of 2014 to 2015, compared to 2,507 people in the period of 2011 to 2012. [42] In 2020, the UK Government admitted that it had made no assessment of the impact that benefit sanctions made on mental health. [43] At the same point in time the Government also refused to assess the impact benefit sanctions have on people’s mental health, which came after repeated warnings on the long-term damage they can cause to people that use the welfare state and to these people's families. [44] Also in 2020, it was reported that at least 69 suicides were linked to the DWP's handling of benefit claims. The National Audit Office (NAO) said the actual number of deaths linked to claims could be much higher than this. It was also reported that the DWP were not looking into information from coroners or families, nor investigating all the reports of suicide made aware to it. [45] In the same year the DWP were accused of a "cover-up" due to destroying approximately 50 reports connected to benefits being stopped. Officials blamed data protection laws for the actions, though the data watchdog denied there was any requirement to destroy the documents by any date. [46] In March 2022, an academic study into whether benefit sanctions are linked to claimant ill-health, including mental illness and suicide was stopped after the DWP and Government ministers refused to release their recorded data on sanctions. [47] From a contemporary perspective, in practice, social welfare in the United Kingdom is very different from the ideal version of the welfare state that people may carry. Coverage is extensive, but benefits and services are delivered at a low level. The social protection provided is patchy, and services are tightly rationed.” This opinion appears to be growing in popularity amongst the general population of the UK. This argument does stand when you compare certain statistics with some of Europe’s biggest nations. The UK has a tax revenue, as a share of GDP percentage of 12.55%... this is in this is simply incomparable when matched with France’s (57%), Germany’s (66.66%), and Italy’s (75%). It was also found, in a 2021 study by The Health Foundation, that Britain spends the 6th most money on health care amongst “developed countries.” This figure sits below the EU average and explains why some believe the welfare state is not so successful. It is also a fact that “The UK dedicates roughly one-fifth of its GDP to social spending. That places us 17th – roughly in the middle – of OECD countries” (Whiteford, 2022). [48]

Over the course of the COVID-19 Pandemic, it became clear that there was a distinct shortage of provisions available to support public health, including a lack of beds in the NHS and a lack of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). In the closing statement of the British Medical Association (BMA) in July 2023, it was noted that this lack of pandemic preparedness manifested in four key areas; failure to protect healthcare workers, lack of capacity and resources, failings of the test and trace system, and failings in government structures and processes. [49] The statement also claimed that the "UK was bottom of the table on numbers of doctors, nurses, beds, intensive care units, respirators and ventilators", [49] and that funding of healthcare has been inadequate since 2010, [49] suggesting that the state the NHS found itself in at the outbreak of the pandemic had not been an overnight shift, but rather the effect of the past decade's funding issues.

The UK has seen a drastic increase in the usage of foodbanks nationwide: 2.17m food bank users in 2021/22 in comparison to the 41,000 in 2009/10. [50] During the COVID-19 crisis, food insecurity impacted 16% of the population, and some critics argue that government food aid was instigated too late for the elderly and vulnerable. There have also been criticisms of the food parcels given, as reports stated that the parcels lacked nutritional food and instead contained an abundance of processed foods.

Benefit rates as a percentage of industrial earnings

Benefit rates as a per cent of industrial earnings of male manual workers aged 21 and over (1948–71) [51]
Year (month)Single pensionSupplementary Benefit for single personFamily Allowance for four children
1948 (October)18.917.510.9
1961 (April)19.117.89.3
1962 (April)18.417.18.9
1963 (May)20.819.58.6
1964 (April)19.218.18.0
1964 (October)18.717.67.7
1965 (April)21.220.17.4
1965 (October)20.419.47.1
1966 (April)19.818.86.9
1966 (October)19.720.06.9
1967 (April)19.419.76.8
1967 (October)21.020.17.7
1968 (April)20.219.311.9
1968 (October)19.619.812.6
1969 (April)18.819.312.1
1969 (November)20.019.211.7
1970 (April)19.018.311.3
1970 (November)17.618.310.2
1971 (March) (est.)17.318.010.0

Note on source, as quoted in the text: "based on statistics of weekly earnings, Employment and Productivity Gazette."

Changes in National Assistance/Supplementary Benefit

Changes in National Assistance/Supplementary Benefit scale (1963–1969) (a) [51]
Date of changeReal value single pensionerReal value married man with three children (b)Real take home pay for average worker
May 1963100100100
March 1965111112106
November 1966117110106
October 1967122115108
November 1969122115110
Notes

Increases in National Insurance benefits

Increases in National Insurance benefits (1963–69): [51]
Date of increaseReal take home pay for average worker (a)Real value of single pension (b)Real value of unemployment benefit
(man with wife and three children) (c)
March/May 1963100100100
January/March 1965106111110
October 1967108114113
November 1969110114116
Notes

Social security benefits as a percentage of average earnings

Social security benefits as a percentage of average earnings for last increases of various governments, 1951–79 [52]
GovernmentSickness/unemployment benefit aa plus earnings related supplementRetirement pensions cSupplementary allowance/benefits dFamily allowance/child benefit e
Labour (1951)25.725.730.430.48.0
Conservative (1963)33.833.833.031.65.3
Labour (1969)32.452.332.431.43.8
Conservative (1973)29.146.230.528.53.0
Labour (1978)30.544.437.430.23.7

Social policy benefits and earnings under the Labour Government 1964–69

Social policy benefits and earnings under Labour 1963–69: [53]
YearUnemployment, sickness, and retirement benefits (single)Retirement pension (married)National assistance/supplementary benefit (married couple)Adult male manual workers (weekly earnings)Adult male administrative, technical, and clerical employees (weekly earnings)
1963100100100100100
1969148149150154148

Supplementary benefits rates as a proportion of income

Supplementary benefit rates as a proportion of gross and net income at average earnings, married couple: [54]
YearEnd of year (a)
As % of gross average earnings
Ordinary rateLong term rate
197328.531.4
197428.133.6
197529.836.2
197630.837.1
197732.338.9
197830.637.8
As % of net income (b) at average earnings
Ordinary rateLong term rate
197337.941.8
197438.846.5
197542.451.5
197643.952.9
197744.153.1
197841.651.4
Supplementary benefit: long term scale rate as proportion of ordinary rate (%)
Date of introductionSingleMarried couple
197314.010.3
197423.819.8
1975 (April)25.020.4
1975 (November)25.721.4
197623.620.3
197723.420.4
197828.023.5

Households dependent on Supplementary Benefit

Numbers in households dependent on supplementary benefit or with estimated incomes below SB level, 1974 and 1976 (thousands)
YearPensionersUnder pensionable age family head or single parent
(as % of total)UnemployedNormally in full-time workSick or disabledOthers
19742,680(52%)4503604801,170
19762,800(44%)1,0808902801,300

Changes in real terms in social security benefits

Changes in real terms in social security benefits, 1964–79 (in 1981 prices, 1951= 100): [52]
YearSupplementary benefits (a)Sickness/unemployment benefit (b)Retirement pensions (c)Family allowance/child benefit (d)
196414617614985
196516619916885
196616519916882
196717331817380
196817331817377
196917232917272
197017332917269
197117835417780
197218735618375
197318634219168
197419134521678
197518732721569
197618932321972
197719032622169
197818932122882
1979190308232102
Notes

Percentage change in social security benefits, prices and earnings

Percentage change in social security benefits, prices, and earnings since previous updating (1974–1978): [54]
DateUnemployment and sickness benefit (a)Retirement pension (b)Prices (c)Average earnings (d)
July 197417.029.013.512.9
April 197514.016.017.717.4
November 197513.314.711.710.7
November 197616.215.015.012.8
November 197714.014.413.09.6
November 19787.111.48.114.6
Total increase October 1973 – 1978114.3151.6109.6107.9

Unemployment and sickness benefits as a percentage of income

Unemployment or sickness benefits as percentage of net income (a) at average earnings (b): [54]
YearSingle personMarried coupleMarried couple with two children
Excl. ERSInc. ERS (c)Excl. ERSInc. ERS (c)Excl. ERSInc. ERS (c)
196527.027.041.241.249.349.3
197025.053.338.465.248.372.7
197324.848.438.761.549.570.6
197425.648.639.561.650.270.3
197524.545.938.058.448.367.0
197624.946.738.359.148.467.3
197725.847.939.159.949.768.8
197825.445.138.857.449.666.9

The real value of social security benefits, 1948–75

Value of social security benefits in £1981 s
DateUnemployment benefit [55] Retirement pension [55] Supplementary benefit [55] Child support: one child [55] Child support: three children [55]
1948, July19.6419.6417.934.8717.60
1961, April26.8826.8825.314.3616.62
1971, September34.9634.9633.394.2715.36
1975, November36.4742.9635.103.6713.81

See also

Housing

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William Beveridge</span> British Liberal politician, economist, and social reformer

William Henry Beveridge, 1st Baron Beveridge, was a British economist and Liberal politician who was a progressive and social reformer who played a central role in designing the British welfare state. His 1942 report Social Insurance and Allied Services served as the basis for the welfare state put in place by the Labour government elected in 1945.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Welfare state</span> Form of government

A welfare state is a form of government in which the state protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for citizens unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Welfare</span> Means-oriented social benefit

Welfare, or commonly social welfare, is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifically to social insurance programs which provide support only to those who have previously contributed, as opposed to social assistance programs which provide support on the basis of need alone. The International Labour Organization defines social security as covering support for those in old age, support for the maintenance of children, medical treatment, parental and sick leave, unemployment and disability benefits, and support for sufferers of occupational injury.

Welfare reform is the process of proposing and adopting changes to a welfare system in order to improve the efficiency and administration of government assistance programs with the goal of enhancing equity and fairness for both welfare recipients and taxpayers. Reform programs have various aims: empowering individuals to help them become self-sufficient, ensuring the sustainability and solvency of various welfare programs, and/or promoting equitable distribution of resources. Welfare reform is constantly debated because of the varying opinions on a government's need to balance the imperatives of guaranteeing welfare benefits and promoting self-sufficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Department for Work and Pensions</span> Ministerial department of the UK Government

The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) is a United Kingdom government department of His Majesty's Government responsible for welfare, pensions and child maintenance policy. As the UK's biggest public service department it administers the State Pension and a range of working age, disability and ill health benefits to around 20 million claimants and customers. It is the second largest governmental department in terms of employees, and the largest in terms of expenditure (£187bn).

Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) is an unemployment benefit paid by the Government of the United Kingdom to people who are unemployed and actively seeking work. It is part of the social security benefits system and is intended to cover living expenses while the claimant is out of work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attlee ministry</span> UK government, 1945–1951

Clement Attlee was invited by King George VI to form the Attlee ministry in the United Kingdom in July 1945, succeeding Winston Churchill as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The Labour Party had won a landslide victory at the 1945 general election, and went on to enact policies of what became known as the post-war consensus, including the establishment of the welfare state and the nationalisation of some industries. The government's spell in office was marked by post-war austerity measures, the violent crushing of pro-independence and communist movements in Malaya, the grant of independence to India, the engagement in the Cold War against Soviet Communism as well as the creation of the country's National Health Service (NHS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Labour government, 1964–1970</span> Government of the United Kingdom

Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II on 16 October 1964 and formed the first Wilson ministry, a Labour government, which held office with a thin majority between 1964 and 1966. In an attempt to gain a workable majority in the House of Commons, Wilson called a new election for 31 March 1966, after which he formed the second Wilson ministry, a government which held office for four years until 1970.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty in the United Kingdom</span>

Poverty in the United Kingdom is the condition experienced by the portion of the population of the United Kingdom that lacks adequate financial resources for a certain standard of living, as defined under the various measures of poverty.

Employment and Support Allowance (ESA) is a United Kingdom welfare payment for adults younger than the State Pension age who are having difficulty finding work because of their long-term medical condition or a disability. It is a basic income-replacement benefit paid in lieu of wages. It is currently being phased out and replaced with Universal Credit for claimants on low incomes, although the contribution-based element remains available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beveridge Report</span> Influential 1942 document in the founding of the welfare state in the United Kingdom

The Beveridge Report, officially entitled Social Insurance and Allied Services, is a government report, published in November 1942, influential in the founding of the welfare state in the United Kingdom. It was drafted by the Liberal economist William Beveridge – with research and publicity by his wife, mathematician Janet Philip – who proposed widespread reforms to the system of social welfare to address what he identified as "five giants on the road of reconstruction": "Want… Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness". Published in the midst of World War II, the report promised rewards for everyone's sacrifices. Overwhelmingly popular with the public, it formed the basis for the post-war reforms known as the welfare state, which include the expansion of National Insurance and the creation of the National Health Service.

The welfare trap theory asserts that taxation and welfare systems can jointly contribute to keep people on social insurance because the withdrawal of means-tested benefits that comes with entering low-paid work causes there to be no significant increase in total income. According to this theory, an individual sees that the opportunity cost of getting a better paying job is too great for too little a financial return, and this can create a perverse incentive to not pursue a better paying job.

Welfare in France includes all systems whose purpose is to protect people against the financial consequences of social risks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social programs in the United States</span> Overview of social programs in the United States of America

The United States spends approximately $2.3 trillion on federal and state social programs include cash assistance, health insurance, food assistance, housing subsidies, energy and utilities subsidies, and education and childcare assistance. Similar benefits are sometimes provided by the private sector either through policy mandates or on a voluntary basis. Employer-sponsored health insurance is an example of this.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Kingdom government austerity programme</span> Fiscal policy

The United Kingdom government austerity programme is a fiscal policy that was adopted for a period in the early 21st century following the Great Recession. The term was used by the Coalition and Conservative governments in office from 2010 to 2019, and again during the 2021–present cost of living crisis. The two periods are separated by a stint of interventionist, Keynesian spending during the COVID-19 pandemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Welfare Reform Act 2012</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Welfare Reform Act 2012 is an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom which makes changes to the rules concerning a number of benefits offered within the British social security system. It was enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom on 8 March 2012.

Child benefits in the United Kingdom are a series of welfare payments and tax credits made to parents with children in the UK, a major part of the welfare state.

Disability in the United Kingdom covers a wide range of conditions and experiences, deeply impacting the lives of millions of people. Defined by the Equality Act 2010 as a physical or mental impairment with a substantial and long-term adverse effect on a person's ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities, it encompasses various aspects of life, including demographics, legislation, healthcare, employment, and culture. Despite numerous advancements in policy and social attitudes, individuals with disabilities often encounter unique challenges and disparities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Welfare fraud</span> Form of illegally using state welfare systems

Welfare fraud is the act of illegally using state welfare systems by knowingly withholding or giving information to obtain more funds than would otherwise be allocated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iain Duncan Smith's tenure as Work and Pensions Secretary</span> UK Government appointment from 2010 to 2016

Iain Duncan Smith served as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions from 2010 to 2016. A member and previous leader of the Conservative Party, Duncan Smith was appointed to the cabinet by Prime Minister David Cameron following the 2010 general election and the formation of the coalition government between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. He was reappointed after the Conservatives won a majority in the 2015 general election but resigned in March 2016 in opposition to disability benefit cuts.

References

  1. Gøsta Esping-Andersen (1998). The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press; Polity Press. ISBN   9780745607962.
  2. Bartholomew, J. (2004). “The Welfare State We’re In” Politico’s Publishing.
  3. Scheve, Kenneth; Serlin, Theo (2022). "The German Trade Shock and the Rise of the Neo-Welfare State in Early Twentieth-Century Britain". American Political Science Review. 117 (2): 557–574. doi: 10.1017/S0003055422000673 . ISSN   0003-0554. S2CID   251172841.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Britain 1905–1975: The Liberal reforms 1906–1914". GCSE Bitesize. BBC.
  5. Jane Lewis, "The English Movement for Family Allowances, 1917–1945." Histoire sociale/Social History 11.22 (1978) pp. 441–59.
  6. John Macnicol, Movement for Family Allowances, 1918–45: A Study in Social Policy Development (1980).
  7. 1 2 3 4 Steve Schifferes (26 July 2005). "Britain's long road to the welfare state". BBC News .
  8. "Why were school dinners brought in?". National Archives.
  9. "1908 Children's Act was created to protect the poorest children in society from abuse". Intriguing History. 12 January 2012.
  10. Gazeley, Ian (17 July 2003). Poverty in Britain 1900–1945. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN   978-0333716199.
  11. "Case Study: Working People" (PDF). National Archives. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
  12. David Taylor (1988). Mastering Economic and Social History. Macmillan Education. ISBN   978-0-333-36804-6.
  13. Spicker, Paul. "Social policy in the UK". spicker.uk. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
  14. "The Beveridge Report 1942" (PDF). His Majesties publishing office. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  15. 1 2 3 "The Beveridge Report and the postwar reforms" (PDF). Policy Studies Institute. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
  16. 1 2 Crafts, N., 2023. The welfare state and inequality: were the UK reforms of the 1940s a success?, s.l.: IFS Deaton Review of Inequalities.
  17. "A history of NHS spending in the UK". February 2017.
  18. "A brief history of health and care funding reform in England". Socialist Health Association. 27 February 2012. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
  19. "NHS Charges, Third Report of Session 2005–06" (PDF). publications.parliament.uk. House of Commons Health Committee. 18 July 2006. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  20. Collette, C. and Laybourn, K. (2003) ‘Modern Britain Since 1979. A Reader’. Chapter 2: The Welfare State, 1979-2002. I.B. Tauris.
  21. 1 2 Welfare spending for UK's poorest shrinks by £37bn The Guardian
  22. 1 2 "Welfare spending p.132" (PDF). 4 December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  23. "Benefits for unemployed people" (PDF). A Survey of the UK Benefit System. Institute for Fiscal Studies. November 2012. p. 16.
  24. "Benefits for people on low incomes" (PDF). A Survey of the UK Benefit System. Institute for Fiscal Studies. November 2012. p. 25.
  25. 1 2 Office for Budget Responsibility, 2023. A brief guide to the public finances, s.l.: Office for Budget Responsibility. https://obr.uk/docs/dlm_uploads/BriefGuide-M23.pdf
  26. Bartholomew, James (2013). The Welfare State We're In (2nd ed.). Biteback Publishing. p. 480. ISBN   978-1849544504.
  27. Steffen Mau, "The Moral Economy of Welfare States: Britain and Germany Compared." Routledge, (2004) pp.7.
  28. Christopher Pierson and Francis Castles, "The Welfare State Reader" Polity (2006) pp.68-75
  29. Steffen Mau, "The Moral Economy of Welfare States: Britain and Germany Compared." Routledge, (2004) pp.2.
  30. "David Cameron: 'Don't complain about welfare cuts, go and find work'". 23 January 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
  31. "Conservative conference: Welfare needs 'cultural shift'". BBC News. 8 October 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
  32. Grice, Andrew (4 January 2013). "Voters 'brainwashed by Tory welfare myths', shows new poll". The Independent. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
  33. "Support for benefit cuts dependent on ignorance, TUC-commissioned poll finds". TUC. Archived from the original on 7 January 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
  34. Dixon, Hayley (13 December 2013). "Majority of benefit cheats not prosecuted, official figures show". The Telegraph. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  35. "Fraud and Error in the Benefit System: 2012/13 Estimates (Great Britain)" (PDF). gov.uk. Department for Work and Pensions. January 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
  36. "Kinship carers at risk of poverty and debt due to welfare cuts, says charity". The Guardian. 12 October 2015.
  37. "Church of England bishops demand action over hunger". BBC News. 20 February 2014.
  38. Bulman, May (24 April 2018). "Food bank use in UK reaches highest rate on record as benefits fail to cover basic costs". The Independent. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  39. "Majority of Britons think empathy is on the wane". The Guardian. 3 October 2018.
  40. "UK social security payments 'at lowest level since launch of welfare state'". The Guardian. 18 November 2019.
  41. Henderson, Rick. "More benefit sanctions means more suffering for those who live on the edge". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  42. Stone, Jon (12 November 2015). "Benefit sanctions against people with mental health problems up by 600 per cent". The Independent. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  43. Duffy, Nick. "Government admits it has made 'no assessment' of mental health impact of benefit sanctions". i News. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  44. Bulman, May (25 January 2020). "Ministers refuse to assess impact of benefit sanctions on mental health despite warnings of links to suicide". The Independent. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  45. Butler, Patrick (7 February 2020). "At least 69 suicides linked to DWP's handling of benefit claims". 7 February 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  46. Merrick, Rob (26 February 2020). "'Cover-up': DWP destroyed reports into people who killed themselves after benefits were stopped". The Independent. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  47. Butler, Patrick (2 March 2022). "DWP blocks data for study of whether benefit sanctions linked to suicide". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  48. "How generous is the British welfare state?". 28 October 2022.
  49. 1 2 3 "BMA closing statement to the UK Covid-19 Module 1". The British Medical Association is the trade union and professional body for doctors in the UK. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  50. Barker, Margo; Russell, Jean (1 August 2020). "Feeding the food insecure in Britain: learning from the 2020 COVID-19 crisis". Food Security. 12 (4): 865–870. doi:10.1007/s12571-020-01080-5. ISSN   1876-4525. PMC   7357276 . PMID   32837648.
  51. 1 2 3 Labour and inequality: sixteen fabian essays edited by Peter Townsend and Nicholas Bosanquet
  52. 1 2 The Labour Party in Crisis by Paul Whiteley
  53. Taxation, Wage Bargaining and Unemployment by Isabela Mares
  54. 1 2 3 Labour and Equality : A Fabian Study of Labour in Power, 1974–79 edited by Nick Bosanquet and Peter Townsend
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 by Rodney Lowe

Bibliography