Presidential directive

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A presidential directive, or executive action, [1] is a written or oral [note 1] instruction or declaration issued by the president of the United States, which may draw upon the powers vested in the president by the U.S. Constitution, statutory law, or, in certain cases, congressional and judicial acquiescence. [2] Such directives, which have been issued since the earliest days of the federal government, have become known by various names, and some have prescribed forms and purposes. [3] Presidential directives remain in effect until they are revoked, [4] which the president is free to do. [5] The classification of presidential directives is not easily done, as the distinction between the types can be quite arbitrary, arising from convenience and bureaucratic evolution, [6] and none are defined in the Constitution. [7] Furthermore, the different types may overlap. [8] As one legal scholar put it: "it is a bit misleading to overclassify presidential directives as comprising separate and distinct 'types' just because they have different headings at the top of the first page." [9] In terms of legal applicability, what matters is the substance of the directive, not the form, [4] [6] unless a certain kind of directive is specifically required by relevant statute. [10]

Contents

Checks and balances

Presidential directives may be challenged in court or through congressional action. [11] Congress may revoke or modify a presidential directive, directly or indirectly, but only insofar as the directive is based on congressional legislation. [12] Direct repeal by Congress is quite rare in modern times, because it may be necessary to override a presidential veto, [13] which requires an elusive two-thirds supermajority in both chambers. [14] [15]

Executive order and presidential proclamations

President Donald Trump displaying Executive Order 13799 Trump signs Executive Order.jpg
President Donald Trump displaying Executive Order 13799

Two of the oldest and best-known directives are the executive order and the presidential proclamation. [16] In 1907, the State Department undertook to retroactively number executive orders and presidential proclamations. [17] The denomination of "executive order" was largely due to the fact that the first executive order they chose to number (from 1862) was titled "Executive Order Establishing a Provisional Court in Louisiana". [18] It was an imperfect exercise, however, and many directives were missed. [19] The Federal Register Act of 1935 required both executive orders and proclamations to be published in the Federal Register , with few exceptions. [20] The proper form and routing of executive orders and presidential proclamations has been governed since 1962 by E.O. 11030, as amended. [21] [22]

The first presidential proclamation appeared in October 1789 declaring a day of thanksgiving [23] at the request of Congress. [24] The use of executive orders also stretches back at least to 1789. [25]

Administrative order

The first directive called an administrative order appeared in 1940. Subsequent directives denominated as administrative orders have taken a variety of forms, and have sometimes overlapped with other kinds of presidential directives. [8] A researcher for the Congressional Research Service in 2008 found that in "general, indications are that, during at least the past 40 years, presidential directives published in the Federal Register in forms other than those of executive orders, or proclamations, have been denominated as administrative orders when reproduced in CFR Title 3 compilations." [8] These forms included: "delegations of authority, determinations, directives, findings, letters, memoranda, and orders". [8] A research guide by the National Archives defined administrative orders as "unnumbered signed documents through which the President of the United States conducts the administrative operations of the Federal Government" which "include but are not limited to memoranda, notices, determinations, letters, and messages". [26]

National security directive

NSDD 14, when it was partially declassified. The directive is now declassified in full. Security Considerations in Egypt and Sudan - NARA - 198178.jpg
NSDD 14, when it was partially declassified. The directive is now declassified in full.

Directives commonly known as national security directives have been issued within the National Security Council by every president since Truman in various forms, [28] involving foreign, military and domestic policies. [29] Generally, such directives are highly classified, are not required to be published in the Federal Register, [30] and are available to the public only after "a great many years" have elapsed. [31] Unlike executive orders, national security directives are usually directed only to the National Security Council and the most senior executive branch officials, and embody foreign and military policy-making guidance rather than specific instructions. [32]

Homeland Security Presidential Directive

Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs) appeared soon after the September 11 attacks, and are sometimes issued concurrently as a § National security directive. [33]

Selected list of HSPDs

Presidential finding

Presidential findings [note 2] are required by statute to be written and signed before covert activities are undertaken, and they must be reported to Congress as soon as possible, before the covert action in question has been initiated. [37] The finding must also be submitted to certain congressional committees. [38] Presidential findings, given their sensitive nature, are classified upon issuance. [39]

Presidential announcement

Presidents often make oral announcements which can be classified as presidential directives, such as Bill Clinton's inauguration of the National Performance Review on 3 March 1993. Although they are not included in the Federal Register, they are often recorded in the Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents. [37]

Other directives

See also

Notes

  1. Some (but not all) sources limit the definition of a presidential directive to the written realm. See § Presidential announcement.
  2. Directives of the same name appeared in the Federal Register from as early as 1954, but for different purposes. See Relyea 2008, p. 12.

Related Research Articles

Continuity of Operations (COOP) is a United States federal government initiative, required by U.S. Presidential Policy Directive 40 (PPD-40), to ensure that agencies are able to continue performance of essential functions under a broad range of circumstances. PPD-40 specifies certain requirements for continuity plan development, including the requirement that all federal executive branch departments and agencies develop an integrated, overlapping continuity capability, that supports the eight National Essential Functions (NEFs) described in the document.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Executive order</span> Federal administrative instruction issued by the president of the United States

In the United States, an executive order is a directive by the president of the United States that manages operations of the federal government. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of the United States Constitution gives presidents broad executive and enforcement authority to use their discretion to determine how to enforce the law or to otherwise manage the resources and staff of the executive branch. The ability to make such orders is also based on expressed or implied Acts of Congress that delegate to the president some degree of discretionary power. The vast majority of executive orders are proposed by federal agencies before being issued by the president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National security directive</span> Instruction the President of the United States sends to defense and intelligence advisers

National security directives are presidential directives issued for the National Security Council (NSC). Starting with Harry Truman, every president since the founding of the National Security Council in 1947 has issued national security directives in one form or another, which have involved foreign, military and domestic policies. National security directives are generally highly classified and are available to the public only after "a great many years" have elapsed. Unlike executive orders, national security directives are usually directed only to the National Security Council and the most senior executive branch officials, and embody foreign and military policy-making guidance rather than specific instructions.

The powers of the president of the United States include those explicitly granted by Article II of the United States Constitution as well as those granted by Acts of Congress, implied powers, and also a great deal of soft power that is attached to the presidency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FIPS 201</span> US Federal standard

FIPS 201 is a United States federal government standard that specifies Personal Identity Verification (PIV) requirements for Federal employees and contractors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Emergencies Act</span> 1976 U.S.legislation

The National Emergencies Act (NEA) is a United States federal law passed to end all previous national emergencies and to formalize the emergency powers of the President.

The National Security and Homeland Security Presidential Directive, signed by President of the United States George W. Bush on May 4, 2007, is a Presidential Directive establishing a comprehensive policy on the federal government structures and operations in the event of a "catastrophic emergency". Such an emergency is defined as "any incident, regardless of location, that results in extraordinary levels of mass casualties, damage, or disruption severely affecting the U.S. population, infrastructure, environment, economy, or government functions."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidential proclamation (United States)</span> Statement issued by a US president on a matter of public policy

A presidential proclamation is a statement issued by a US president on an issue of public policy and is a type of presidential directive.

A presidential memorandum is a type of directive issued by the president of the United States to manage and govern the actions, practices, and policies of the various departments and agencies found under the executive branch of the United States government. It has the force of law and is usually used to delegate tasks, direct specific government agencies to do something, or to start a regulatory process. There are three types of presidential memoranda: presidential determination or presidential finding, memorandum of disapproval, and hortatory memorandum.

Homeland Security Presidential Directive 9 establishes a national policy to protect against terrorist attacks on agriculture and food systems. It directs federal departments and agencies to coordinate their efforts, assess vulnerabilities, prepare response plans, create public awareness, and conduct necessary research. HSPD-9 builds upon HSPD-7, which added agriculture to the list of industries for critical infrastructure protection. HSPD-5 and HSPD-8 are being used by the USDA Homeland Security Staff in implementing HSPD-9.

Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD)-8, National Preparedness, describes the way United States Federal agencies will prepare for an incident. It requires Department of Homeland Security to coordinate with other Federal agencies and with State, local, and Tribal governments to develop a National Preparedness Goal with Emergency management. Congressional laws enacted, following the wake of 9/11, which resulted in new developments in the way security was assessed and addressed in the United States, to prevent and respond to threatened or actual domestic terrorist attacks, disasters, and other emergencies by requiring a national domestic all-hazards preparedness goal. HSPD 5, HSPD-7, HSPD-8, and HSPD-8 Annex 1 are directives that deal with the preparedness goals.

The Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI) outlines U.S. cybersecurity goals across multiple agencies including the Department of Homeland Security, the Office of Management and Budget, and the National Security Agency. The initiative was established by President George W. Bush in January 2008 in National Security Presidential Directive 54/Homeland Security Presidential Directive 23 (NSPD-54/HSPD-23).

The United States Presidential Policy Directive 19, signed by President Barack Obama, is designed to ensure that employees who serve in the Intelligence Community or have access to classified information can effectively report waste, fraud, and abuse, while protecting classified information. It is the executive order establishing standards for all Federal agencies with employees covered by the Directive, including those under Defense Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection and the U.S. Department of Defense Whistleblower Program. It also prohibits retaliation against these employees for their reports. PPD-19 accordingly establishes a system of Intelligence community whistleblowing and source protection under the Office, Director of National Intelligence and supervised by the Inspector General of the Intelligence Community.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lists of proclamations by Donald Trump</span>

Donald Trump signed a total of 570 proclamations from January 2017 to January 2021.

References

  1. Kessler, Glenn (31 December 2014). "Claims regarding Obama's use of executive orders and presidential memoranda". Washington Post.
  2. Gaziano 2001, pp. 6–7: "These ... actions were probably unconstitutional, but Congress acquiesced in the face of wartime contingencies, and the matters were never challenged in court."
  3. Relyea 2008, Summary.
  4. 1 2 Moss, Randolph D. (29 January 2000). "Legal Effectiveness of a Presidential Directive as Compared to an Executive Order – Memorandum For The Counsel to the President". Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel .
  5. Chu & Garvey 2014, p. 7; Contrubis 1999, p. 19.
  6. 1 2 Gaziano 2001, pp. 11–12.
  7. Chu & Garvey 2014, pp. 1–2.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Relyea 2008, p. 4.
  9. Gaziano 2001, p. 11.
  10. Gaziano 2001, pp. 9–10.
  11. Relyea 2008, Introduction.
  12. Chu & Garvey 2014, p. 9; Relyea 2008, Introduction.
  13. Chu & Garvey 2014, p. 9.
  14. Henderson, Sara. "What Are Two Ways Congress Can Check the Power of the Executive Branch?". classroom.synonym.com.
  15. "Glossary: override of a veto". U.S. Senate. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
  16. Relyea 2008, p. 2.
  17. Relyea 2008, p. 6; Gaziano 2001, Note 45; Schmeckebier & Eastin 1939, p. 322.
  18. Relyea 2008, pp. 1, 6.
  19. Schmeckebier & Eastin 1939, p. 322.
  20. Relyea 2008, p. 3; Gaziano 2001, p. 11; [[#CITEREF|]].
  21. Gaziano 2001, p. 12.
  22. "Executive Order 11030 – Preparation, presentation, filing, and publication of Executive orders and proclamations". National Archives. 15 August 2016.
  23. Relyea 2008, p. 14.
  24. "Thanksgiving Proclamation". The Washington Papers . Retrieved 23 September 2017.
  25. Relyea 2008, pp. 5–6.
  26. "Presidential Documents Guide". National Archives. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
  27. "NSDD – National Security Decision Directives Reagan Administration". Federation of American Scientists.
  28. Dwyer 2002, Abstract.
  29. General Accounting Office 1988, Background.
  30. General Accounting Office 1992, p. 3; Dwyer 2002, p. 411; Relyea 2008, p. 9.
  31. Relyea 2008, p. 9.
  32. General Accounting Office 1992, p. 1.
  33. Relyea 2008, pp. 6–7.
  34. Homeland Security Presidential Directive 12: Policy for a Common Identification Standard for Federal Employees and Contractors. At Department of Homeland Security website.
  35. Homeland Security Presidential Directive 14 description at Center of Army Lessons Learned web site, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center
  36. Text of HSPD-14 (same as NSPD-43) at Federation of American Scientists website
  37. 1 2 Relyea 2008, p. 12.
  38. Erwin, Marshall Curtis (10 April 2013). "Covert Action: Legislative Background and Possible Policy Questions" (PDF). Congressional Research Service . p. 6. RL33715.
  39. Relyea 2008, p. 13.
  40. Relyea 2008, pp. 13–14.
  41. Relyea 2008, p. 5.
  42. Relyea 2008, pp. 7–8.
  43. Relyea 2008, p. 8.
  44. "Military Order of November 13, 2001 – Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism". Federal Register. Hosted by FAS.org.
  45. Relyea 2008, pp. 4–5.
  46. Relyea 2008, p. 15.
  47. Relyea 2008, p. 6.
  48. Relyea 2008, p. 7.

Sources

Further reading