Veto

Last updated

US President Ronald Reagan signing a veto of a bill. President Ronald Reagan signing veto of defense authorization bill.jpg
US President Ronald Reagan signing a veto of a bill.

A veto is a legal power to unilaterally stop an official action. In the most typical case, a president or monarch vetoes a bill to stop it from becoming law. In many countries, veto powers are established in the country's constitution. Veto powers are also found at other levels of government, such as in state, provincial or local government, and in international bodies.

Contents

Some vetoes can be overcome, often by a supermajority vote: in the United States, a two-thirds vote of the House and Senate can override a presidential veto. [1] Some vetoes, however, are absolute and cannot be overridden. For example, in the United Nations Security Council, the five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have an absolute veto over any Security Council resolution.

In many cases, the veto power can only be used to prevent changes to the status quo. But some veto powers also include the ability to make or propose changes. For example, the Indian president can use an amendatory veto to propose amendments to vetoed bills.

The executive power to veto legislation is one of the main tools that the executive has in the legislative process, along with the proposal power. [2] It is most commonly found in presidential and semi-presidential systems. [3] In parliamentary systems, the head of state often has either a weak veto power or none at all. [4] But while some political systems do not contain a formal veto power, all political systems contain veto players, people or groups who can use social and political power to prevent policy change. [5]

The word "veto" comes from the Latin for "I forbid". The concept of a veto originated with the Roman offices of consul and tribune of the plebs. There were two consuls every year; either consul could block military or civil action by the other. The tribunes had the power to unilaterally block any action by a Roman magistrate or the decrees passed by the Roman Senate. [6]

History

Roman veto

Tiberius Gracchus, Roman tribune Tiberius Gracchus.jpg
Tiberius Gracchus, Roman tribune

The institution of the veto, known to the Romans as the intercessio, was adopted by the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC to enable the tribunes to protect the mandamus interests of the plebeians (common citizenry) from the encroachments of the patricians, who dominated the Senate. A tribune's veto did not prevent the senate from passing a bill but meant that it was denied the force of law. The tribunes could also use the veto to prevent a bill from being brought before the plebeian assembly. The consuls also had the power of veto, as decision-making generally required the assent of both consuls. If they disagreed, either could invoke the intercessio to block the action of the other. The veto was an essential component of the Roman conception of power being wielded not only to manage state affairs but to moderate and restrict the power of the state's high officials and institutions. [6]

A notable use of the Roman veto occurred in the Gracchan land reform, which was initially spearheaded by the tribune Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC. When Gracchus' fellow tribune Marcus Octavius vetoed the reform, the Assembly voted to remove him on the theory that a tribune must represent the interests of the plebeians. Later, senators outraged by the reform murdered Gracchus and several supporters, setting off a period of internal political violence in Rome. [7]

Liberum veto

In the constitution of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 17th and 18th centuries, all bills had to pass the Sejm or "Seimas" (parliament) by unanimous consent, and if any legislator invoked the liberum veto , this not only vetoed that bill but also all previous legislation passed during the session, and dissolved the legislative session itself. The concept originated in the idea of "Polish democracy" as any Pole of noble extraction was considered as good as any other, no matter how low or high his material condition might be. The more and more frequent use of this veto power paralyzed the power of the legislature and, combined with a string of weak figurehead kings, led ultimately to the partitioning and the dissolution of the Polish state in the late 18th century.

Emergence of modern vetoes

William III of England granting royal assent to the Toleration Act 1688. P588 William III. giving his royal assent to the toleration act.jpg
William III of England granting royal assent to the Toleration Act 1688.

The modern executive veto derives from the European institution of royal assent, in which the monarch's consent was required for bills to become law. This in turn had evolved from earlier royal systems in which laws were simply issued by the monarch, as was the case for example in England until the reign of Edward III in the 14th century. [8] In England itself, the power of the monarch to deny royal assent was not used after 1708, but it was used extensively in the British colonies. The heavy use of this power was mentioned in the U.S. Declaration of Independence in 1776. [9]

Following the French Revolution in 1789, the royal veto was hotly debated, and hundreds of proposals were put forward for different versions of the royal veto, as either absolute, suspensive, or nonexistent. [10] With the adoption of the French Constitution of 1791, King Louis XVI lost his absolute veto and acquired the power to issue a suspensive veto that could be overridden by a majority vote in two successive sessions of the Legislative Assembly, which would take four to six years. [11] With the abolition of the monarchy in 1792, the question of the French royal veto became moot. [11]

The presidential veto was conceived in by republicans in the 18th and 19th centuries as a counter-majoritarian tool, limiting the power of a legislative majority. [12] Some republican thinkers such as Thomas Jefferson, however, argued for eliminating the veto power entirely as a relic of monarchy. [13] To avoid giving the president too much power, most early presidential vetoes, such as the veto power in the United States, were qualified vetoes that the legislature could override. [13] But this was not always the case: the Chilean constitution of 1833, for example, gave that country's president an absolute veto. [13]

Types

Most modern vetoes are intended as a check on the power of the government, or a branch of government, most commonly the legislative branch. Thus, in governments with a separation of powers, vetoes may be classified by the branch of government that enacts them: an executive veto, legislative veto, or judicial veto.

Other types of veto power, however, have safeguarded other interests. The denial of royal assent by governors in the British colonies, which continued well after the practice had ended in Britain itself, served as a check by one level of government against another. [8] Vetoes may also be used to safeguard the interests of particular groups within a country. The veto power of the ancient Roman tribunes protected the interests of one social class (the plebeians) against another (the patricians). [14] In the transition from apartheid, a "white veto" to protect the interests of white South Africans was proposed but not adopted. [15] More recently, Indigenous vetoes over industrial projects on Indigenous land have been proposed following the 2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which requires the "free, prior and informed consent" of Indigenous communities to development or resource extraction projects on their land. However, many governments have been reluctant to allow such a veto. [16]

Vetoes may be classified by whether the vetoed body can override them, and if so, how. An absolute veto cannot be overridden at all. A qualified veto can be overridden by a supermajority, such as two-thirds or three-fifths. A suspensory veto, also called a suspensive veto, can be overridden by a simple majority, and thus serves only to delay the law from coming into force. [17]

Types of executive vetoes

US President Bill Clinton signing cancellation letters related to his line-Item vetoes for the Balanced Budget Act of 1997. President William J. Clinton Signing Line Item Veto Letters - NARA - 77861673.jpg
US President Bill Clinton signing cancellation letters related to his line-Item vetoes for the Balanced Budget Act of 1997.

A package veto, also called a "block veto" or "full veto", vetoes a legislative act as a whole. A partial veto, also called a line item veto, allows the executive to object only to some specific part of the law while allowing the rest to stand. An executive with a partial veto has a stronger negotiating position than an executive with only a package veto power. [3] An amendatory veto or amendatory observation returns legislation to the legislature with proposed amendments, which the legislature may either adopt or override. The effect of legislative inaction may vary: in some systems, if the legislature does nothing, the vetoed bill fails, while in others, the vetoed bill becomes law. Because the amendatory veto gives the executive a stronger role in the legislative process, it is often seen as a marker of a particularly strong veto power.

Some veto powers are limited to budgetary matters (as with line-item vetoes in some US states, or the financial veto in New Zealand). [18] Other veto powers (such as in Finland) apply only to non-budgetary matters; some (such as in South Africa) apply only to constitutional matters. A veto power that is not limited in this way is known as a "policy veto". [3]

One type of budgetary veto, the reduction veto, which is found in several US states, gives the executive the authority to reduce budgetary appropriations that the legislature has made. [18] When an executive is given multiple different veto powers, the procedures for overriding them may differ. For example, in the US state of Illinois, if the legislature takes no action on a reduction veto, the reduction simply becomes law, while if the legislature takes no action on an amendatory veto, the bill dies. [19]

A pocket veto is a veto that takes effect simply by the executive or head of state taking no action. In the United States, the pocket veto can only be exercised near the end of a legislative session; if the deadline for presidential action passes during the legislative session, the bill will simply become law. [20] The legislature cannot override a pocket veto. [2]

Some veto powers are limited in their subject matter. A constitutional veto only allows the executive to veto bills that are unconstitutional; in contrast, a "policy veto" can be used wherever the executive disagrees with the bill on policy grounds. [3] Presidents with constitutional vetoes include those of Benin and South Africa.

Legislative veto

A legislative veto is a veto power exercised by a legislative body. It may be a veto exercised by the legislature against an action of the executive branch, as in the case of the legislative veto in the United States, which is found in 28 US states. [21] It may also be a veto power exercised by one chamber of a bicameral legislature against another, such as was formerly held by members of the Senate of Fiji appointed by the Great Council of Chiefs. [22]

Veto over candidates

In certain political systems, a particular body is able to exercise a veto over candidates for an elected office. This type of veto may also be referred to by the broader term "vetting".

Historically, certain European Catholic monarchs were able to veto candidates for the papacy, a power known as the jus exclusivae. This power was used for the last time in 1903 by Franz Joseph I of Austria. [23]

In Iran, the Guardian Council has the power to approve or disapprove candidates, in addition to its veto power over legislation.

In China, following a pro-democracy landslide in the 2019 Hong Kong local elections, in 2021 the National People's Congress approved a law that gave the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee, appointed by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, the power to veto candidates for the Hong Kong Legislative Council. [24]

Balance of powers

In presidential and semi-presidential systems, the veto is a legislative power of the presidency, because it involves the president in the process of making law. In contrast to proactive powers such as the ability to introduce legislation, the veto is a reactive power, because the president cannot veto a bill until the legislature has passed it. [25]

Executive veto powers are often ranked as comparatively "strong" or "weak". A veto power may be considered stronger or weaker depending on its scope, the time limits for exercising it and requirements for the vetoed body to override it. In general, the greater the majority required for an override, the stronger the veto. [3]

Partial vetoes are less vulnerable to override than package vetoes, [26] and political scientists who have studied the matter have generally considered partial vetoes to give the executive greater power than package vetoes. [27] However, empirical studies of the line-item veto in US state government have not found any consistent effect on the executive's ability to advance its agenda. [28] Amendatory vetoes give greater power to the executive than deletional vetoes, because they give the executive the power to move policy closer to its own preferred state than would otherwise be possible. [29] But even a suspensory package veto that can be overridden by a simple majority can be effective in stopping or modifying legislation. For example, in Estonia in 1993, president Lennart Meri was able to successfully obtain amendments to the proposed Law on Aliens after issuing a suspensory veto of the bill and proposing amendments based on expert opinions on European law. [26]

Worldwide

United Nations Security Council meeting room. UN-Sicherheitsrat - UN Security Council - New York City - 2014 01 06.jpg
United Nations Security Council meeting room.

Globally, the executive veto over legislation is characteristic of presidential and semi-presidential systems, with stronger veto powers generally being associated with stronger presidential powers overall. [3] In parliamentary systems, the veto power of the head of state is typically weak or nonexistent. [4] In particular, in Westminster systems and most constitutional monarchies, the power to veto legislation by withholding royal assent is a rarely used reserve power of the monarch. In practice, the Crown follows the convention of exercising its prerogative on the advice of parliament.

International bodies

Africa

Africa Africa just countries.svg
Africa

Americas

The Americas Amerika.PNG
The Americas

Asia

Asia Map of Asia.png
Asia

Europe

Europe Europe ISO 3166-1.svg
Europe

European countries in which the executive or head of state does not have a veto power include Slovenia and Luxembourg, where the power to withhold royal assent was abolished in 2008. [90] Countries that have some form of veto power include the following:

Oceania

Oceania Oceania without Asian country codes.jpg
Oceania

Veto theories

In political science, the broader power of people and groups to prevent change is sometimes analyzed through the frameworks of veto points and veto players. Veto players are actors who can potentially exercise some sort of veto over a change in government policy. [5] Veto points are the institutional opportunities that give these actors the ability to veto. [5] The theory of veto points was first developed by Ellen M. Immergut in 1990, in a comparative case study of healthcare reform in different political systems. [138] Breaking with earlier scholarship, Immergut argued that "we have veto points within political systems and not veto groups within societies." [139]

Veto player analysis draws on game theory. George Tsebelis first developed it in 1995 and set it forth in detail in 2002 Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work . [140] A veto player is a political actor who has the ability to stop a change from the status quo. [141] There are institutional veto players, whose consent is required by constitution or statute; for example, in US federal legislation, the veto players are the House, Senate and presidency. [142] There are also partisan veto players, which are groups that can block policy change from inside an institutional veto player. [143] In a coalition government the partisan veto players are typically the members of the governing coalition. [143] [144]

According to Tsebelis' veto player theorem, policy change becomes harder the more veto players there are, the greater the ideological distance between them, and the greater their internal coherence. [141] For example, Italy and the United States have stable policies because they have many veto players, while Greece and the United Kingdom have unstable policies because they have few veto players. [145]

While the veto player and veto point approaches complement one another, the veto players framework has become dominant in the study of policy change. [146] Scholarship on rational choice theory has favored the veto player approach because the veto point framework does not address why political actors decide to use a veto point. [5] In addition, because veto player analysis can apply to any political system, it provides a way of comparing very different political systems, such as presidential and parliamentary systems. [5] Veto player analyses can also incorporate people and groups that have de facto power to prevent policy change, even if they do not have the legal power to do so. [147]

Some literature distinguishes cooperative veto points (within institutions) and competitive veto points (between institutions), theorizing competitive veto points contribute to obstructionism. [148] Some literature disagrees with the claim of veto player theory that multiparty governments are likely to be gridlocked. [148]

See also

Works cited

Constitutions cited

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Royal assent</span> Formal approval of a proposed law in monarchies

Royal assent is the method by which a monarch formally approves an act of the legislature, either directly or through an official acting on the monarch's behalf. In some jurisdictions, royal assent is equivalent to promulgation, while in others that is a separate step. Under a modern constitutional monarchy, royal assent is considered little more than a formality. Even in nations such as the United Kingdom, Norway, the Netherlands, Liechtenstein and Monaco which still, in theory, permit their monarch to withhold assent to laws, the monarch almost never does so, except in a dire political emergency or on advice of government. While the power to veto by withholding royal assent was once exercised often by European monarchs, such an occurrence has been very rare since the eighteenth century.

In a parliamentary or semi-presidential system of government, a reserve power, also known as discretionary power, is a power that may be exercised by the head of state without the approval of another branch or part of the government. Unlike in a presidential system of government, the head of state is generally constrained by the cabinet or the legislature in a parliamentary system, and most reserve powers are usable only in certain exceptional circumstances.

Promulgation is the formal proclamation or the declaration that a new statutory or administrative law is enacted after its final approval. In some jurisdictions, this additional step is necessary before the law can take effect.

A pocket veto is a legislative maneuver that allows a president or other official with veto power to exercise that power over a bill by taking no action, thus effectively killing the bill without affirmatively vetoing it. This depends on the laws of each country; the common alternative is that if the president takes no action a bill automatically becomes law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Governor of Indiana</span> Head of state and government of the U.S. state of Indiana

The governor of Indiana is the head of government of the U.S. state of Indiana. The governor is elected to a four-year term and is responsible for overseeing the day-to-day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government. The governor also shares power with other statewide executive officers, who manage other state government agencies. The governor works out of the Indiana Statehouse and holds official functions at the Indiana Governor's Residence in the state capital of Indianapolis.

A constitutional amendment is a modification of the constitution of a polity, organization or other type of entity. Amendments are often interwoven into the relevant sections of an existing constitution, directly altering the text. Conversely, they can be appended to the constitution as supplemental additions, thus changing the frame of government without altering the existing text of the document.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitution of France</span> Principles, institutions and law of political governance in France

The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic(French: la Constitution de la Cinquième République), and it replaced the Constitution of the Fourth Republic of 1946 with the exception of the preamble per a 1971 decision of the Constitutional Council. The current Constitution regards the separation of church and state, democracy, social welfare, and indivisibility as core principles of the French state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bill (law)</span> Proposed law

A bill is a proposal for a new law, or a proposal to substantially alter an existing law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">California State Legislature</span> Legislative branch of the state government of California

The California State Legislature is the bicameral state legislature of the U.S. state of California, consisting of the California State Assembly and the California State Senate. Both houses of the Legislature convene at the California State Capitol in Sacramento.

Ratification is a principal's legal confirmation of an act of its agent. In international law, ratification is the process by which a state declares its consent to be bound to a treaty. In the case of bilateral treaties, ratification is usually accomplished by exchanging the requisite instruments, and in the case of multilateral treaties, the usual procedure is for the depositary to collect the ratifications of all states, keeping all parties informed of the situation.

An upper house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. The house formally designated as the upper house is usually smaller and often has more restricted power than the lower house. A legislature composed of only one house is described as unicameral.

A supermajority is a requirement for a proposal to gain a specified level of support which is greater than the threshold of one-half used for a simple majority. Supermajority rules in a democracy can help to prevent a majority from eroding fundamental rights of a minority, but can also hamper efforts to respond to problems and encourage corrupt compromises at times when action is taken. Changes to constitutions, especially those with entrenched clauses, commonly require supermajority support in a legislature. Parliamentary procedure requires that any action of a deliberative assembly that may alter the rights of a minority have a supermajority requirement, such as a two-thirds vote. In consensus democracy the supermajority rule is applied in most cases.

The dissolution of a legislative assembly is the simultaneous termination of service of all of its members, in anticipation that a successive legislative assembly will reconvene later with possibly different members. In a democracy, the new assembly is chosen by a general election. Dissolution is distinct on the one hand from abolition of the assembly, and on the other hand from its adjournment or prorogation, or the ending of a legislative session, any of which begins a period of inactivity after which it is anticipated that the same members will reassemble. For example, the "second session of the fifth parliament" could be followed by the "third session of the fifth parliament" after a prorogation, but would be followed by the "first session of the sixth parliament" after a dissolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illinois General Assembly</span> Bicameral legislature of Illinois

The Illinois General Assembly is the legislature of the U.S. state of Illinois. It has two chambers, the Illinois House of Representatives and the Illinois Senate. The General Assembly was created by the first state constitution adopted in 1818. As of 2023, the current General Assembly is the 103rd; the term of an assembly lasts two years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidential Council for Minority Rights</span> Government body in Singapore

The Presidential Council for Minority Rights (PCMR) is a non-elected government body in Singapore established in 1970, the main function of which is to scrutinize most of the bills passed by Parliament to ensure that they do not discriminate against any racial or religious community. If the Council feels that any provision in a bill amounts to a differentiating measure, it will report its findings to Parliament and refer the bill back to Parliament for reconsideration. The council also examines subsidiary legislation and statutes in force on 9 January 1970. One member of the PCMR is nominated by the chairman to the Presidential Elections Committee, which is empowered to ensure that candidates for the office of President have the qualifications required by the Constitution. The President also appoints and dismisses the chairman and members of the Presidential Council for Religious Harmony ("PCRH"), established by the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act, on the advice of the PCMR, and the PCMR is responsible for determining whether PCRH members who are not representatives of major religions in Singapore have distinguished themselves in public service or community relations in Singapore.

This is a brief description of the lawmaking procedure in India.

Amending the Constitution of India is the process of making changes to the nation's fundamental law or supreme law. The procedure of amendment in the constitution is laid down in Part XX of the Constitution of India. This procedure ensures the sanctity of the Constitution of India and keeps a check on arbitrary power of the Parliament of India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Separation of powers in Singapore</span>

The Separation of powers in Singapore is governed by Constitution of the Republic of Singapore, which splits the power to govern the country between three branches of government – the parliament, which makes laws; the executive, which executes them; and the judiciary, which enforces them. Each branch, while wielding legitimate power and being protected from external influences, is subject to a system of checks and balances by the other branches to prevent abuse of power. This Westminster constitutional model was inherited from the British during Singapore's colonial years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Veto power in the United States</span>

In the United States, the president can use the veto power to prevent a bill passed by the Congress from becoming law. Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both chambers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Veto power in Illinois</span>

The veto power in Illinois exists in the state government as well as many municipal and some county governments. The gubernatorial veto power is established in the Illinois Constitution, and is one of the most comprehensive vetoes in the United States. It began as a suspensive veto exercised jointly with the Supreme Court but has grown stronger in each of the state's four constitutions. The gubernatorial veto power consists of two vetoes that apply to all bills passed by the General Assembly and two vetoes that apply only to appropriations measures.

References

  1. Article I, Section 7, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution
  2. 1 2 Palanza & Sin 2020, p. 367.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "4. System of government". Constitutions in OECD Countries: A Comparative Study : Background Report in the Context of Chile's Constitutional Process. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  4. 1 2 Bulmer 2017, p. 5.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Oppermann & Brummer 2017, p. 3.
  6. 1 2 Spitzer, Robert J. (2000). The presidential veto: touchstone of the American presidency. SUNY Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN   978-0-88706-802-7.
  7. Capogrossi Colognesi, Luigi (2014). "Tiberius Gracchus and the distribution of the ager publicus". Law and Power in the Making of the Roman Commonwealth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9781316061923.
  8. 1 2 Watson 1987, p. 403.
  9. Watson 1987, p. 404.
  10. Blackman, Robert (2004). "What was "Absolute" about the "Absolute veto"? Ideas of National Sovereignty and Royal Power in September 1789". Journal of the Western Society for French History. 32. hdl:2027/spo.0642292.0032.008.
  11. 1 2 Jones, Colin (2014). The Longman Companion to the French Revolution. Routledge. p. 67. ISBN   9781317870807.
  12. Bulmer 2017, pp. 12–13.
  13. 1 2 3 Bulmer 2017, p. 13.
  14. Watson 1987, p. 402.
  15. Joe Contreras (28 November 1993). "Apartheid on the Ash Heap". Newsweek. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
  16. Shaw, Jessie (2017). "Indigenous Veto Power in Bolivia". Peace Review. 29 (2): 231–238. doi:10.1080/10402659.2017.1308737. S2CID   149072601.
  17. Garner, Bryan, ed. (2004). Black's Law Dictionary (8th ed.). p. 4841.
  18. 1 2 NCSL 1998, p. 6-29.
  19. "Legislative Glossary". Illinois General Assembly. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  20. 1 2 Watson 1987, p. 407.
  21. "Separation of Powers: Legislative Oversight". National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  22. Ghai, Yash; Cottrell, Jill (2007). "A tale of three constitutions: Ethnicity and politics in Fiji". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 5 (4): 639–669. doi: 10.1093/icon/mom030 .
  23. Tobin, Greg (2009). Selecting the Pope: Uncovering the Mysteries of Papal Elections. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 35. ISBN   9781402729546.
  24. Leung, Christy (14 July 2021). "Hong Kong electoral changes: powerful vetting committee that will review hopefuls in coming polls holds first meeting". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  25. Croissant 2003, p. 72.
  26. 1 2 Metcalf, Lee Kendall (2000). "Measuring Presidential Power". Comparative Political Studies. 33 (5): 670. doi:10.1177/0010414000033005004. S2CID   154874901.
  27. Palanza & Sin 2020, p. 375.
  28. Palanza & Sin 2020, p. 374.
  29. Palanza & Sin 2020, p. 382.
  30. "Charter of the United Nations: Chapter V – The Security Council: Article 27". Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs. United Nations. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  31. 1 2 "Voting System". United Nations Security Council. Retrieved 15 June 2022. All five permanent members have exercised the right of veto at one time or another. If a permanent member does not fully agree with a proposed resolution but does not wish to cast a veto, it may choose to abstain, thus allowing the resolution to be adopted if it obtains the required number of nine favourable votes.
  32. "Twenty-Third Meeting". United Nations. 16 February 1946. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  33. Krassen Nikolov (9 June 2022). "Bulgaria sets 3 conditions for lifting North Macedonia veto". EURACTIV.com. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  34. Slapin, Jonathan B. (2011). "Exit Threats, Veto Rights, and Integration". Veto Power: Institutional Design in the European Union. University of Michigan Press. p. 123. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1qv5nfq. ISBN   9780472117932. JSTOR   j.ctt1qv5nfq.
  35. "Article 290". EUR-Lex. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  36. Schütze, Robert (September 2011). "'Delegated' Legislation in the (new) European Union: A Constitutional Analysis". The Modern Law Review. 74 (5): 661–693. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2230.2011.00866.x. JSTOR   41302774. S2CID   219376667.
  37. 1 2 Kaeding, Michael K.; Stack, Kevin M. (25 October 2016). "A dearth of legislative vetoes: Why the Council and Parliament have been reluctant to veto Commission legislation" . Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  38. 1 2 Bulmer 2017, p. 19.
  39. 1 2 3 Article 57 of the Constitution of Benin  (1990)
  40. Bulmer 2017, p. 33.
  41. 1 2 Constitutional Court of Benin (4 December 2008). "DCC08-171" (PDF) (in French). Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  42. 1 2 Article 19 of the Constitution of Cameroon  (2008)
  43. Article 31 of the Constitution of Cameroon  (2008)
  44. Bulmer 2017, p. 8.
  45. Pierre de Vos (20 November 2019). "No Sir, the president does not have the power to veto the Copyright Bill" . Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  46. 1 2 Article 79 of the Constitution of South Africa  (2012)
  47. 1 2 3 Article 91 of the Constitution of Uganda  (2017)
  48. "KADAGA: Income Tax Amendment Bill is now law". The Independent. Uganda. 22 December 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  49. Titriku, Agnes. "Interaction Between MPs and Civil Society Is Needed". In R. Stapenhurst; et al. (eds.). Anti-Corruption Evidence, Studies in Public Choice 34. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14140-0_5. S2CID   198750839.
  50. Bulmer 2017, p. 31.
  51. "The Constitution of Zambia (Amendment) (N.A.B. 17, 2015)" (PDF). Parliament of Zambia. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 January 2016.
  52. Article 66 of the Constitution of Zambia  (2016)
  53. "Entenda a tramitação do veto" [Understand the processing of a veto]. National Congress of Brazil. Accessed 15 October 2022.
  54. Article 53 of the Constitution of Canada  (1867)
  55. Jackson, Michael. "Bastedo, Frank Lindsay (1886–1973)". Encyclopedia of Saskatachewan. Archived 24 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina.
  56. 1 2 3 Article 102 of the Constitution of the Dominican Republic  (2015)
  57. 1 2 3 Tsebelis & Alemán 2005, p. 406.
  58. Basabe-Serrano, Santiago; Huertas-Hernández, Sergio (2020). "Legislative override and particularistic bills in unstable democracies: Ecuador in comparative perspective". The Journal of Legislative Studies. 27 (2): 15. doi:10.1080/13572334.2020.1810902. S2CID   224949744.
  59. Basabe-Serrano 2020, pp. 6–7.
  60. 1 2 3 4 Tsebelis & Alemán 2005, p. 405.
  61. Tsebelis & Alemán 2005, pp. 405, 420.
  62. Article I, Section 7 of the Constitution of the United States  (1789)
  63. 1 2 National Conference of State Legislatures. "Separation of Powers – Executive Veto Powers" . Retrieved 11 June 2022. Every state constitution empowers the governor to veto an entire bill passed by the legislature.
  64. "The Veto Process" (PDF). Inside the Legislative Process. National Conference of State Legislatures. 1998. pp. 6–31. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 January 2010.
  65. China Internet Information Center. "China Questions and Answers -- china.org.cn" . Retrieved 11 June 2022. Administrative regulations shall not contravene laws adopted by the NPC, local regulations shall not contravene laws and administrative regulations, and the NPC has the power to annul administrative regulations and local regulations that contravene the laws it has made.
  66. 1 2 3 Article 46 of the Constitution of Georgia (country)  (2018)
  67. Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, p. 1179.
  68. Article 111 of the Constitution of India
  69. Sharma, B.k. (2007). Introduction to the Constitution of India. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 145. ISBN   978-81-203-3246-1.
  70. Gupta, V. P. (26 August 2002). "The President's role". The Times of India . Archived from the original on 16 June 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  71. Butt, Simon; Lindsey, Tim (2008). "Economic Reform when the Constitution Matters: Indonesia's Constitutional Court and Article 33". Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. 44 (2): 239–262. doi:10.1080/00074910802169004. S2CID   154149905.
  72. 1 2 Setiawan, Ken M.P; Tomsa, Dirk (2022). Politics in Contemporary Indonesia: Institutional Change, Policy Challenges and Democratic Decline. Routledge. ISBN   9780429860935.
  73. Article 22 of the Constitution of Indonesia  (2022)
  74. Sri Wiyanti (10 October 2014). "Adakah hak veto presiden dalam sistem ketatanegaraan?". merdeka.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  75. 1 2 "The Guardian Council". Iran Social Science Data Portal. Retrieved 11 June 2022. The Guardian Council has three constitutional mandates: a) it has veto power over legislation passed by the parliament (Majles);
  76. Article 94, 96 of the Constitution of Iran  (1989)
  77. Article 7 of the Constitution of Japan  (1947)
  78. Herzog, Peter J. (1951). "Political Theories in the Japanese Constitution". Monumenta Nipponica. 7 (1/2): 11. doi:10.2307/2382947. JSTOR   2382947. There is no veto power against the legislature-unless at some future time the Emperor's "non-governmental" ceremonial functions enumerated in Article 7 were construed as discretionary.
  79. Benjamin, Seth B.; Grant, Jason (29 March 2022). "Japan: Local Autonomy Is a Central Tenet to Good Governance" . Retrieved 21 June 2022.
  80. Shimizutani, Satoshi (2010). "Local Government in Japan: New Directions in Governance toward Citizens' Autonomy". Asia-Pacific Review. 17 (2): 114. doi:10.1080/13439006.2010.531115. S2CID   154999192.
  81. Article 53, Section 2 of the Constitution of South Korea  (1987)
  82. Article 53, Section 3 of the Constitution of South Korea  (1987)
  83. Article 53, Section 4 of the Constitution of South Korea  (1987)
  84. Young Whan Kihl (2015). Transforming Korean Politics: Democracy, Reform, and Culture. Routledge. p. 305. ISBN   9781317453321.
  85. 1 2 Rose-Ackerman, Susan; Desierto, Diane A.; Volosin, Natalia (2011). "Hyper-Presidentialism: Separation of Powers without Checks and Balances in Argentina and Philippines". Berkeley Journal of International Law. 29: 282.
  86. Article VI, Section 27 of the Constitution of the Philippines  (1987)
  87. 1 2 3 Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, p. 1166.
  88. Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, pp. 1166, 1181.
  89. Article 84 of the Constitution of Uzbekistan  (1992)
  90. Frieden, Luc (July 2009). "Luxembourg: Parliament abolishes royal confirmation of laws". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 7 (3): 539–543. doi: 10.1093/icon/mop021 .
  91. 1 2 3 4 Article 107 of the Constitution of Estonia  (2015)
  92. Köker 2015, p. 158.
  93. Köker 2015, p. 157.
  94. Köker 2015, pp. 86, 88.
  95. Paloheimo, Heikki (2003). "The Rising Power of the Prime Minister in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies. 26 (3): 219–243. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00086.
  96. Raunio, Taupio; Sedelius, Thomas (2020). Semi-Presidential Policy-Making in Europe. p. 57. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16431-7. ISBN   978-3030164331. S2CID   198743002.
  97. Article 10 of the Constitution of France  (2008)
  98. Article 61 of the Constitution of France  (2008)
  99. Brouard, Sylvain (2009). "The Politics of Constitutional Veto in France: Constitutional Council, Legislative Majority and Electoral Competition". West European Politics. 32 (2): 384–403. doi:10.1080/01402380802670719. S2CID   154741100.
  100. Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (in German). Article 82.{{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  101. "Bundespräsidenten: Das achte Nein". Der Spiegel (in German). 8 December 2006. ISSN   2195-1349 . Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  102. Janisch, Wolfgang (8 October 2020). "Das könnt ihr besser". Süddeutsche.de (in German). Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  103. "Hasskriminalität: Gesetz gegen Onlinehetze tritt Ostern in Kraft". Der Spiegel (in German). 1 April 2021. ISSN   2195-1349 . Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  104. Article 6 of the Constitution of Hungary  (2016)
  105. Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, p. 1164.
  106. 1 2 "Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson Will not Run Again for President of Iceland". 1 January 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2022. He was the first president to use the presidential veto power he has according to the constitution.
  107. Elgie, Robert (2012). "The President of Ireland in Comparative Perspective" (PDF). Irish Political Studies. 27 (4): 502–521. doi:10.1080/07907184.2012.734445. S2CID   28754294 . Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  108. Article 27, Section 1 of the Constitution of Ireland  (2019)
  109. Hogan, Gerard (20 November 1997). "Article 27 comes with a Catch-22 that makes it unworkable". The Irish Times. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  110. Koff, Stephen P. (1982). "The Italian Presidency: Constitutional Role and Political Practice". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 12 (3): 341. JSTOR   27547832.
  111. The Local Italy (29 May 2018). "Here's how Italy's president explains his controversial veto". TheLocal.it. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  112. Article 72 of the Constitution of Latvia  (2016)
  113. Article 71 of the Constitution of Latvia  (2016)
  114. Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, pp. 1172–1173.
  115. 1 2 Article 122 of the Constitution of Poland  (1997)
  116. Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, p. 1178.
  117. Article 278-279 of the Constitution of Portugal  (2005)
  118. Fernandes, Jorge M.; Jalali, Carlos (2016). "A Resurgent Presidency? Portuguese Semi-Presidentialism and the 2016 Elections". South European Society and Politics. 22: 121–138. doi:10.1080/13608746.2016.1198094. S2CID   156761976.
  119. Santos Botelho, Catarina (2020). "COVID-19 and stress on fundamental rights in Portugal: An intermezzo between the state of exception and constitutional normality". Revista Catalana de Dret Públic (Número Especial): 188. doi:10.2436/rcdp.i0.2020.3553.
  120. Article 233 of the Constitution of Portugal  (2005)
  121. Article 90, Section 1 of the Constitution of Spain  (1978)
  122. Article 90, Section 2 of the Constitution of Spain  (1978)
  123. Article 134, Section 6 of the Constitution of Spain  (1978)
  124. Delgado Ramos, David. University of La Rioja The Government budget veto (Spanish)
  125. Tsebelis & Rizova 2007, p. 1171.
  126. Lagassé, Philippe (April 2017). "Parliament and the War Prerogative in the United Kingdom and Canada: Explaining Variations in Institutional Change and Legislative Control". Parliamentary Affairs. 70 (2): 280–300. doi: 10.1093/pa/gsw029 .
  127. Torrance, David (16 January 2023). "Section 35 of the Scotland Act and vetoing devolved legislation". House of Commons Library .
  128. "Documenting Democracy". Foundingdocs.gov.au. 9 October 1942. Archived from the original on 1 June 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  129. 1 2 Hamer, David (2002) [1994, University of Canberra]. "Curiously ill-defined – the role of the head of state". Can Responsible Government Survive in Australia?. Canberra: Australian Government – Department of the Senate. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  130. Twomey, Anne (28 January 2019). "Why a government would be mad to advise the refusal of royal assent to a bill passed against its will".
  131. Campbell Rhodes (30 April 2018). "What does a state governor do?". Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
  132. 1 2 Article IX, Section 22 of the Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia  (1979)
  133. Article IX, Section 2(q) of the Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia  (1979)
  134. "Crown's financial veto". Cabinet Manual. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Retrieved 12 June 2022. Crown's financial veto
  135. 1 2 McGee, David (May 2021). Parliamentary Practice in New Zealand. Oratia Media. ISBN   9780947506247.
  136. Article 41, 68, Section 2 of the Constitution of Tonga  (1978)
  137. "King withholds assent on lower firearms penalties". Matangi Tonga. 9 January 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
  138. Oppermann & Brummer 2017, p. 4.
  139. Immergut, Ellen M. (1990). "Institutions, Veto Points, and Policy Results: A Comparative Analysis of Health Care". Journal of Public Policy. 10 (4): 391. doi:10.1017/s0143814x00006061. S2CID   55825849.
  140. Tsebelis 2002, p. 85.
  141. 1 2 Croissant 2003, p. 74.
  142. Tsebelis 2002, p. 107.
  143. 1 2 Tsebelis 2002, p. 19.
  144. Tsebelis, George; Ha, Eunyoung (2014). "Coalition theory: A veto players' approach". European Political Science Review. 6 (3): 331–357. doi:10.1017/S1755773913000106.
  145. Tsebelis 2002, p. 4.
  146. Oppermann & Brummer 2017, p. 2.
  147. Oppermann & Brummer 2017, p. 6.
  148. 1 2 McGann, Anthony J.; Latner, Michael (2013). "The Calculus of Consensus Democracy". Comparative Political Studies. 46 (7): 823–850. doi:10.1177/0010414012463883.