Pactomania is a term originally created to describe the period between 1945 and 1955, during which the United States concluded or ratified a significant amount of alliances, treaties, and pacts. The word "Pactomania" was first used in a The New York Times article in 1955.[1]
The alliances formed during Pactomania have played a pivotal role in the modern era, from the Vietnam War to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[8][9] Today, many of the alliances formed during Pactomania remain today, although SEATO, METO, and the US-Taiwan alliance have been dissolved. Despite the dissolution of SEATO, its underlying collective defense treaty remains in force, and forms the basis of the US-Thailand mutual security alliance.[10] Similarly, in spite of the 1979 dissolution of the US-Taiwan alliance, the US retains significant military relations with Taiwan through the Taiwan Relations Act.
End of isolationism
Prior to this bout of "Pactomania" the United States was described by historians as interventionist in the case of world affairs, but isolationist in the case of alliances. It is often argued by political scientists such as Bear Braumoeller that the US used other methods, particularly financial, to exert its influence over the world. Meanwhile, it avoided outside alliances, treaties, and pacts.[11] Engaging with other countries’ affairs was discouraged in George Washington's farewell address and the Monroe Doctrine.[12] It had been followed in American foreign policy, with the exception of the world wars. As the Cold War divided the world into two, both the Soviet Union and the United States sought to grow their alliances.
John Foster Dulles was the Secretary of State to President Dwight D. Eisenhower,[12] and a senator for a brief period.[13] Due to his values and experience from his career in law, he believed in the advantages of treaties to fight communist forces in the Cold War. He employed this strategy throughout his career such as in 1945, helping create the UN Charter, and in 1954, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Middle East Treaty Organization (METO).[12] Dulles also proposed the creation of a Northeast Asia Treaty Organization (NEATO), which was shelved in favor of bilateral alliances with the concerned states.[14] Before his death, he contributed to the creation of the Eisenhower Doctrine.[13] Dulles demonstrated the importance of treaties to United States foreign policy.
One of the biggest alliances was the creation of the United Nations, an international organization created at the end of World War II, to promote peace and curtail war. It was made to replace the League of Nations.[15] Former United States President Woodrow Wilson helped found the League after the First World War, but it was never joined by the US.[16]
President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed the idea of the UN to Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in November 1943. It was jointly discussed with and proposed by China, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[17]
The Declaration of the United Nations was crafted in 1942 at the Arcadia Conference, but the organization was officially created with the signing of the UN Charter in 1945. Both of these events took place in US cities.[15] At the time the UN was founded, US President Harry Truman's aim was to increase America's participation in international organizations,[18] which is why it was one of the founding members, and the first country to ratify the Charter.[19] Through the creation of the UN Charter, six smaller organizations, called "organs" were created to handle separate affairs:
The idea to create this treaty, also known as the Rio Treaty, had been discussed since the late 1930s when the leaders of the Americas met in several South American cities. However, the countries could not agree due to hesitance from the US and Uruguay. When Senator Vandenburg publicly espoused the idea in a 1947 speech, and the Senate accepted it, nations could sign the Treaty in Rio de Janeiro.[20] Initially, there were 20 members to the Rio Treaty: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela.[21] In 1964, Cuba was suspended, due to its support of communism.[22]
The purpose of the treaty was that in the event of an attack on a member, the other would be obliged to come to their defense, on request.[20] Nowadays, aside from the occasional implementation, such as the US request for support after the 9/11 attacks, the treaty has fallen into disuse.[23] The Rio Pact influenced the creation of the Vandenburg Resolution, and then, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).[20][24]
In the wake of World War II, several European countries were considered to be in shambles with their economies collapsed. Cities were not able to produce enough goods to trade with resource-producing areas and unable to feed their citizens. The Soviet Union took control of Eastern Europe, which threatened Western Europe.
The "Marshall Plan" was suggested by US Secretary of State George Marshall in 1947. The intention was for the US to provide financially for Europe to rebuild its economic infrastructure. It would also help prevent further communist expansion by the Soviets.[25]
Vandenburg Resolution (1948)
Arthur H. Vandenburg
Arthur H. Vandenburg was a RepublicanSenator, a former candidate for presidential nominee, and an avid supporter of multilateralism.[24] The Vandenburg Resolution was created in 1948, after the Rio Treaty and Marshall Plan. These previous agreements, supported by the Vandenburg Resolution, gave the US the idea to create a similar collective defense agreement with Europe to prevent Soviet control. It pushed the country to create NATO and demonstrated the importance of international agreements to the country.[26] Vandenburg's draft resolution was introduced to the Senate on June 11, 1948, where it was approved.[24]
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a collective defense treaty that was created to maintain peace in the North Atlantic region. The treaty included a few features, but the most prominent was the aspect of collective defense.[27] At the time, the US and European nations were worried about the expansion of the Soviet Union. A collective defense agreement would protect nations from being defenseless in the face of a Soviet invasion.[28] The initial idea for the organization was suggested in the Vandenburg Resolution.[24] In 1948, the US, the UK, and Canada, began to brainstorm NATO. 12 members signed the treaty in 1949 in Washington, DC, United States.[28]
ANZUS, signed in 1951 between Australia, New Zealand, and the US, was not considered a mutual defense treaty, but was more akin to "mutual aid". Similar to the other treaties in the period of Pactomania, ANZUS was a collective security treaty, where in the event of an attack on one of the members, the conflict would be settled by peaceful means.[29]
The US deemed the idea unnecessary until the three nations shared their concerns regarding the spread of communism.[30] The idea for the alliance was proposed by the US toward Australia, and was extended to New Zealand.
The alliance has never been formally concluded, but in 1984, when New Zealand banned nuclear weapons, the United States cut ties, treaty-wise, with New Zealand.[29]
Treaty of Peace with Japan and US-Japan Security Treaty (1951)
The Japanese Peace Treaty was created after World War II to end hostilities with Japan. It also settled some land disputes with China, Japan, the Soviet Union, and the United States, and compensate people who were harmed in the war. However, it did not guarantee that foreign military occupation would leave Japan. It was signed in San Francisco, California, United States on September 8, 1951.[31] Shortly after that, the US and Japan created a mutual security treaty.[32]
US-Republic of the Philippines Mutual Defense Treaty (1951)
This treaty was made to maintain peace in the Philippines and surrounding Pacific region.[33] It is a bilateral defense agreement, denoting that if either of the nations were to be put in danger, the other would be allowed to use military force to come to their aid. The US and the Philippines have been allies and maintained the treaty since it was created. It is one of the longest-lasting mutual defense treaties in the world.[34]
The US-Republic of Korea Mutual Defense Treaty is a bilateral defense agreement between the US and South Korea. Similar to ANZUS, if either of the members faced conflict, the other would defend them using peaceful methods, including defensive military approaches. The treaty was signed in 1953 following the Korean War. The purpose is to offer South Korea protection from the two nations’ common enemy, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK).[35]
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), also known as the Manila Pact, was a defense treaty made between several countries inside and outside of Southeast Asia. Its purpose was to protect against the spread of communism in Southeast Asia and to help improve conditions in the region.The original members included the United States, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, and Thailand. There are also "observer" countries, who were still protected under the pact, but could not influence it in other ways.[36]
The organization was officially created in Manila, Philippines in 1955, hence the name.[37] Its headquarters were located in Bangkok, Thailand. SEATO split in 1977.[36]
A mutual defense alliance between the US and Taiwan existed from 1955 until its unilateral nullification by President Jimmy Carter in 1979 as the US recognized the communist mainland. The US Supreme Court affirmed the president's right to nullify the treaty in Goldwater v. Carter. Following its nullification, the treaty was supplanted by the Taiwan Relations Act, passed by Congress in 1979.
The Middle East Treaty Organization (METO), also known as the Baghdad Pact, was a mutual security treaty to contribute to peace in the Middle East.[38] The US produced the idea for the pact,[39] but remained an observer to it for the duration of the pact's existence.[40] The title of the treaty has been changed from METO and was relocated and renamed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) after tensions between the organization and Arab states, particularly Iraq.[38] After the overthrowing of the Shah in the Iranian Revolution, CENTO ended in 1979.[40]
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance of 32 member states—30 European and 2 North American. Established in the aftermath of World War II, the organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949. NATO is a collective security system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties. During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union. The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, and has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. The organization's motto is animus in consulendo liber. The organization's strategic concepts include deterrence.
The Warsaw Pact (WP), formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA), was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant military alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO). The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states.
The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), formerly known as the Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) and also known as the Baghdad Pact, was a military alliance of the Cold War. It was formed on 24 February 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The alliance was dissolved on 16 March 1979.
Bilateralism is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign states. It is in contrast to unilateralism or multilateralism, which is activity by a single state or jointly by multiple states, respectively. When states recognize one another as sovereign states and agree to diplomatic relations, they create a bilateral relationship. States with bilateral ties will exchange diplomatic agents such as ambassadors to facilitate dialogues and cooperations.
The Mutual Defense Assistance Act was a United States Act of Congress signed by President Harry S. Truman on 6 October 1949. For U.S. foreign policy, it was the first U.S. military foreign aid legislation of the Cold War era, and initially to Europe. The Act followed Truman's signing of the Economic Cooperation Act, on April 3, 1948, which provided non-military, economic reconstruction and development aid to Europe.
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand. The organization's headquarters was also in Bangkok. A total of eight members joined the organization in its lifetime.
The First Taiwan Strait Crisis was a brief armed conflict between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) focused on several ROC-held islands a few miles from the Chinese mainland in the Taiwan Strait.
A major non-NATO ally (MNNA) is a designation given by the United States government to countries that have strategic working relationships with the U.S. Armed Forces while not being members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). While the status does not automatically constitute a mutual defense pact with the United States, it does confer a variety of military and financial advantages that are otherwise unobtainable by non-NATO countries. There are currently 20 major non-NATO allies across four continents: 11 in Asia, 4 in Africa, 3 in South America, and 2 in Oceania.
The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty is a 1951 collective security agreement initially formed between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. It requires the parties to maintain their "capacity to resist armed attack", consult with each other on security matters in the Pacific and declares that an armed attack on any of the parties "would be dangerous to [each signatories] peace and safety" and that each signatory "would act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes". It also provides for a council of the signatories foreign ministers, in which the implementation of the treaty can be discussed.
The San Francisco System is a network of alliances pursued by the United States in the Asia-Pacific region, after the end of World War II – the United States as a "hub", and Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, Thailand, Australia, and New Zealand as "spokes". The system is made of bilateral political-military and economic commitments between the United States and its Asia-Pacific allies. This system stands in contrast to a multilateral alliance, such as NATO.
The Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of China, was a defense pact signed between the United States and the Republic of China (Taiwan) effective from 1955 to 1980. It was intended to defend the island of Taiwan from invasion by the People's Republic of China. Some of its content was carried over to the Taiwan Relations Act of 1979 after the failure of the Goldwater v. Carter lawsuit.
The Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of the Philippines is an agreement between the two nations recognizing that an attack in the Pacific on either would endanger the peace of both and agreeing to act in concert to meet the common danger. It signed on August 30, 1951 by their representatives in Washington, D.C. and has eight articles.
The aftermath of the Korean War set the tone for Cold War tension between superpowers. The Korean War was important in the development of the Cold War, as it showed that the two superpowers, United States and Soviet Union, could fight a "limited war" in a third country. The "limited war" or "proxy war" strategy was a feature of conflicts such as the Vietnam War and the Soviet War in Afghanistan, as well as wars in Angola, Greece, and the Middle East.
The "nuclear umbrella" is a guarantee by a nuclear weapons state to defend a non-nuclear allied state. The context is usually the security alliances of the United States with Australia, Japan, South Korea, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Compact of Free Association. Those alliances were formed because of the Cold War and the Soviet Union. For some countries, it was an alternative to acquiring nuclear weapons themselves; other alternatives include regional nuclear-weapon-free zones or nuclear sharing.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Cold War:
The Western Union (WU), also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation (BTO), was the European military alliance established between France, the United Kingdom (UK) and the three Benelux countries in September 1948 in order to implement the Treaty of Brussels signed in March the same year. Under this treaty the signatories, referred to as the five powers, agreed to collaborate in the defence field as well as in the political, economic and cultural fields.
The main issues of the United States foreign policy during the 1945–1953 presidency of Harry S. Truman include:
The Northeast Asia Treaty Organization (NEATO) was a proposed international organization for collective defense in Northeast Asia. It would have comprised the United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.
↑ "Thailand"(PDF). Army Logistics University. United States Army. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2012. Despite the dissolution of the SEATO in 1977, the Manila Pact remains in force and, together with the Thanat-Rusk communiqué of 1962, constitutes the basis of U.S. security commitments to Thailand.
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